Introduction

The m-Learning Initiative

The multi-touch book that you have has been designed to house the content for a college course at Kennebec Valley Community College. The course is part of KVCC’s Associates of Science in Psychology.

The Social Sciences and Psychology Department created this m-Learning Initiative and initiated a 1:1 Apple iPad program. Curricula in the courses has been geared to take advantage of the hardware and software tools of the iPad to:

Enhance in-class teaching methods.

Elevate assessment and evaluation of authentic artifacts that demonstrate student learning.

Increase student-to-student interaction and student-to-teacher interaction.

Prepare students for the emerging mobile-computing based workplace.

Other instructors at other institutions wishing to use this material are free to access the CourseBook in the Apple Bookstore.

CourseBooks

The CourseBook series has been developed to enhance the delivery of course content across the entire program and take advantage of the tools within Apple’s ecosystem in order to deliver more engaging course materials with embedded interactions, video, and links to apps and web content that support teaching and learning.

The content of these CourseBooks have been developed by the authors and represents independent scholarly activity on the part of each author who has contributed to the development of each CourseBook.

How to use this CourseBook

For the students within the Mental Health Program, the content of this CourseBook aligns with activities, expectations, and assignments that are found in the KVCC Learning Management System (LMS).

Students are expected to read and absorb the information in the CourseBook, review the Assessment expectations outlined in each Chapter, and participate in the expectations set by the Instructor of the course in the LMS.

Chapter Organization

Each Chapter in the CourseBook has been organized using the Instructional Design Method developed by Dr. Kavanaugh. This design model, called ALOTA, provides an outline of course materials that adheres to long-standing instructional design theory for adult learners. Namely, the model is greatly influenced by Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction

ALOTA

ALOTA is an acronym for the four essential parts of a lesson plan (or, in this case, chapter).

Attention​
Learning Outcomes​
Teaching​
Assessment

Each Chapter in the CourseBooks series is organized in this manner in order to guide students through the material they are expected to learn.

Here are brief descriptions of what you may find in each of these sections.

Attention

Images, videos, text, and/or activities that bring the reader into the focus of the lesson.

Learning Outcomes

Adhering to the language of Blooms Taxonomy of Learning Objectives, this section outlines the performance-based learning outcomes for the lesson. These align with the Assessment section of each lesson.

Teaching

This section can contain any variety of resources including text, lectures, recordings, videos, and links that provide a pathway through material to assist students in readying themselves for the Assessments.

Assessments

This section outlines assignments for the student to engage in to demonstrate their learning.

Appendix

At the end of the CourseBook you will find the Appendix section. In this section you will find information about APA formatting, tutorials on how to use basic functions of your iPad, and individual tutorials on each of the apps that appear in the book.

Use these resources to self-educate yourself as to the technical aspects of this book.

QR Codes

Whenever there is a link to a movie or a website, you will find that the link is accompanied by a customized QR Code. These are included so that individuals who are reading the print version of this book will be able to scan these QR Codes with their phones and be taken directly to the same links.

Apps in the CourseBook

Because one of the central goals of this series is to develop advanced digital skills on mobile devices, we have included links to specific apps that students use in the context of their learning experiences.

These apps have been selected to enhance understanding of the material, to provide additional resources and information, and/or to challenge students to demonstrate their learning in innovative and creative ways.

In addition to direct links to the apps, there are additional links that have been included in the CourseBook that connect students to tutorials on how to use each app and how to use the iPad in general. Check these resources out in the Appendix of this CourseBook!

This course will have you interacting with your device using the following apps:

Chapter 14: Carl Jung​
Myers Briggs Personality Type App​

Learning-Outcomes Alignment

THIS SECTION IS STILL UNDER CONSTRUCTION

Content Alignment with the Guidelines from the American Psychological Association

The American Psychological Association (APA) produces guidelines for the development of curriculum in the teaching of Psychology at the undergraduate level.

Here is a direct link to the document​
https://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/about/psymajor-guidelines.pdf

The CourseBook series is designed to outline instructional materials and activities that demonstrate competence and knowledge in Psychology in alignment with these guidelines.

This section of each Psychology CourseBook will outline the specific content and activities (assessments) that align with the APA expectations.

Learning Goals for the Degree in Psychology

Goal 1 - Knowledge Base in Psychology

Goal 2 - Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking

Goal 3 - Ethical and Social Responsibility in a Diverse World

Goal 4 - Communication

Goal 5 - Professional Development

Content Alignment with the Essential Learning Outcomes of Kennebec Valley Community College and with the AAC&U VALUE Rubrics

In addition to the Learning Outcomes associated with the APA, specific to the field of Psychology, Kennebec Valley Community College has adopted a set of “Essential Learning Outcomes” (ELOs) which operationalize the institutional goal of producing an “Educated Person” upon graduation.

These Learning Outcomes are largely based upon the VALUE Rubrics produced by the Association of American Colleges & Universities (AAC&U).

This particular program goes further than the expectations of KVCC’s ELOs and incorporates content and activities (assessments) and address all of the VALUE Rubrics.

KVCC’s Essential Learning Outcomes

The following section outlines the areas in this CourseBook that address specific ELO competencies.

Critical Thinking

Problem Solving

Quantitative Literacy

Written Communication

Oral Communication

Interpersonal Communication

Teamwork

AAC&U VALUE Rubrics (not included in the list above)

The following section outlines the areas in this CourseBook that address specific VALUE competencies.

Inquiry and Analysis

Creative Thinking

Reading

Information Literacy

Civic Engagement

Intercultural Knowledge

Ethical Reasoning

Foundational Skills for Lifelong Learning

Global Learning

About the Author

Mark H. Kavanaugh, Ph.D.

Mark Kavanaugh has been writing, teaching, and integrating technology into instruction for decades. He holds a Masters in Counseling, Masters in Instructional and Performance Technology, and a Ph.D. in Educational Psychology.

Mark lives in Maine with his wife Katie.

Visit Mark’s Website

Sensation & Perception

Welcome to the CourseBook for Sensation & Perception!

Sensation is the registration of physical stimuli on sensory receptors. Perception is the process of creating conscious experiences from sensory input. The study of Sensation and Perception examines the interaction between sense organs and nerves in our bodies and our brains. The course will review all the human senses and relate these to aspects of human perception such as expectations, personal history, and cultural norms. Students will engage in sensory simulations and reflect upon the applications of this knowledge to the world around them and the human experience.

This CourseBook is designed to be used with a companion textbook.

Schwartz, B.L., & Krantz, J.H. (2019). Sensation & Perception. (2nd Ed) Cengage

Preface from the text:

Everything we do as human beings starts with our ability to perceive the world. We wake up in the morning to the jarring sound of an alarm clock prompting us to turn on the light in the room so we can see. A few minutes later, the aroma of the coffee lifts our mood and gets us ready to face the day. We feel inside our pocketbooks and briefcases to make sure we have our keys. Then we listen to the radio as we watch for traffic on the busy streets in our cars. Thus, nearly everything we do over the course of our waking hours involves sensation and perception. Think of the obstacles faced by a person missing one or more of these sensory systems. The famous Helen Keller was completely dependent on her sense of touch in the absence of vision and hearing. For this reason, the study of sensation and perception has been important to psychologists from the very beginnings of psychology.

Chapter 1

What is Perception?

Section 1

Attention

An Introductory movie to the field of Sensation and Perception

MOVIE - Crash Course Psychology - Sensation and Perception

Section 2

Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this Chapter, students should be able to:

Discuss how personal bias impacts perception.

Identify a personal experience your senses were challenged.

Identify and describe historical discoveries related to the field of Sensation and Perception.

Section 3

Teaching

Note on Teaching: This section will describe all the material that you ned to review to complete the Assessment section successfully. While this section is akin to a “Lecture” in class, not all the information you need to complete the assessments are contained in these pages. Other sources such as your textbook, Online resources, movies, etc. may need to be reviewed.

Reading

Schwartz, B.L., & Krantz, J.H. (2019). Chapter 1: What is Perception. Sensation & Perception. (2nd Ed) Cengage

We live in a Sensational World

We often don’t think about our senses until we put ourselves in a situation in which we challenge them, such as when we attend a music concert or an art exhibit. Psychology has been busy studying how we sense the world since its very beginnings. Figuring how we process sensory information was a primary objective of Wilhelm Wundt’s original lab!

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Wilhelm Wundt - Image from Wikipedia

Our world, however, is full of color, sounds, smells, tastes, and experiences. These can be pleasurable and not, but our experience of our world in seeped in sensory stimuli.

A LOT of Biology!

In this course you are going to encounter a LOT of Biology, so why is this a Psychology course? Ultimately the field of Psychology wants to study the perceptual experience, and this resides in the brain. However, this experience is mitigated through our sense organs. So, not only do our emotions, expectations, and past experiences impact the way we experiences something, so does the actual anatomy and physiology of the sense organs themselves.

Consider for a moment the concept of bias. Here in Maine, many people are fans of the New England Patriots, who wouldn’t be? Suppose there is a questionable call by an official against Tom Brady, we may tend to feel that the call is wrong because we are a fan of Brady. (Fans of the other team, or Brady-haters, would feel that the call was right!) Even when we look at the replay, we may actually tend to see events slightly different and in favor of our bias.

More than Five Senses

Just when you thought you could count your senses on one hand, you had to take this course! Although this course is centered on the five major senses that we all know and love, there are many, many more senses that our brains use to understand the world around us.

Sense

Definition

Vision

Sensitive to light waves within the visual spectrum.

Hearing

Sensitive to vibrations in the air within the auditory spectrum.

Taste

Chemical sense located in the mouth for flavors.

Smell

Chemical sense located in the nose for scents, works closely with taste.

Touch

Sense of objects that come in contact with our skin.

Pressure

Sense of how hard the object is pressing against our skin.

Itch

Unique sense that alerts us to scratch.

Thermoception

Our ability to sense degrees of cold and heat.

Proprioception

Our ability to locate where are body parts are.

Tension

Sense related to muscle tension.

Nociception

Our ability to sense pain.

Equlibriation

Allows us to keep our balance and sense of direction.

Stretch

Similar to tension.

Hunger

Unique sense that allows us to know we need to eat.

Thirst

Unique sense that allows us to know when we need to drink.

Magnetoception

The ability to detect magnetic fields.

Time

Our sense of time passing.

When I first encountered this longer list of senses, it made total sense to me. Pun intended! Of course we have more than five senses! Rest assured, all that we are going to learn about the big five apply to all of our senses. Perception is still the ultimate goal.

Consider that we have all experienced optical illusions (and we will experience some cool ones in this course!) and we have all thought we heard something that was not there...but have you ever had a strange experience with one of the senses not on the five? Have you ever THOUGHT that a bug or spider was crawling on you? Have you every felt yourself lose track of time?

Sensation and Perception

Let’s get to the point. Sensation is the part of the process that involves the sense organs of our body transforming information from the outside world into neuron signals that our nervous system can understand, a process we call transduction. Perception is the second part of the process and involves turning the sensory information into meaningful experience. The job of the perceptual process is to determine what is “out there.”

Ultimately we use this information to act in the world:

Avoiding objects as we walk.

Recognizing a person we know.

Reading a book.

Watching a movie.

Hitting a ball.

Phenomenology

This term is used to describe the inner experience that we have of our world. As discussed in the book, phenomenology describes the “beauty” of a piece of music, or the “deliciousness” of a cup of coffee. These experiences are very uniquely our own and very subjective.

Consider this thought experiment as way of understanding how different people have different experiences of the sensory world, i.e. different phenomenologies.

This is a blue rectangle. Each of us recognizes this color because throughout our lives we have been told that this color (and others close to it) are called “blue.”

Consider for a moment the notion that within the phenomenology of some individuals they do not see the same shade as you do. They see something like this:

Now, although they experiences a different color than you do, they have always been taught to call this color “blue” so you never notice a discrepancy between experiences, yet we might all be experiencing different colors in different ways!

A bit ‘o History

Well there is no introduction to an area in Psychology without a not to the shoulders we are standing on. As was said at the beginning of this Chapter, the study of Sensation and Perception is at the heart of the beginnings of Psychology, but it stretches into the ancient world as well. Ancient civilizations were very observant of the natural world because so much of their lives depended on its cycles and nuances. It is no surprise that the history of the field begins there.

Read the highly detailed and amazing history of our knowledge in this area in your book.

Section 4

Assessment

This section describes the activities and assignments associated with this Chapter. Be sure to check with your instructor as to which ones you are expected to complete.

Note regarding Discussions: These activities are primarily geared toward students who are taking the course in either an Online or Hybrid format. It is expected that students will post an answer to the prompt contained in the section below and reply to at least two other students’ posts in order to obtain full credit for the discussion. All posts must be substantive and contribute to the discussion.

Note regarding Assignments: These activities entail the creation of a “document” of sorts that needs to be sent to your instructor. Most of these may be papers. All papers must be submitted to the identified “Drop Box” for the assignment and must be in either Microsoft Word or PDF format. Pay attention to expectations such as title pages and APA formatting if these are indicated in the instructions.

Other assignments may entail different types of “documents” including presentations, artwork, charts, spreadsheets, and/or movies. Instructions on how to submit these will be included in the descriptions below

Though they will not be repeated, all of the above notes should be assumed in subsequent chapters, unless otherwise indicated.

Chapter 1 Discussion

You have an understanding about how personal bias can impact perception and likely you have experienced this. In this discussion, you are asked to share experiences where YOU have had biases that have changed your perceptions of a situation or stimulus. Self reflection and an understanding of personal bias are a core skill among those who study Psychology, so it is important that you are able to identify situations like this.

Chapter 1 Quiz

We have all seen optical illusions, but we can have experiences that fool any one of our senses.

Identify a situation in which one your 5 basic senses were fooled.

Identify a situation in which one of the OTHER senses was fooled.

Chapter 1 Assignment

Purpose

The purpose of this assignment is to work collaboratively with your classmates to create a document that captures the collective interest and fascination of the class in regard to specific historical aspects of the field of Sensation and Perception.

Working collaboratively with your fellow students increases your ability for teamwork and exemplifies how a group working together can create a single product with great creativity and diversity.

Skills and Knowledge

You will demonstrate the following skills and knowledge by completing this assignment:

Conducting historical research in the field of Psychology.

Summarizing a person’s unique contributions to the field of Sensation and Perception.

Access a shared online document.

Edit a shared online document.

Task

Your instructor will construct a shared Google Doc document and provide access to all of the students in this class to this single document. The goal is to create a vivid and creative expression of what individual members of the class found interesting and fascinating about the section in our textbook on the history of Sensation and Perception.

(When your instructor constructs the shared Google Doc document, they will include an example post in it to model what you are to do.)

Once the document is ready, individual students can access the document and add entries (in chronological order) regarding interesting individuals and discoveries related to the field of Sensation and Perception. You are urged to make as many contributions to this document as you wish. Each contribution should be unique, although they can address similar individuals, events, and ideas.

Each submission should be factual, should expand beyond what is available in the text, should cite resources that you have used, and should be concluded with a brief reflection on the part of the student.

Grading will be based on a minimum of three posts to the document. Creativity and unique perspectives are encouraged.

Criteria for Success

Use the rubric below as a guide to this assignment.

Item

Performance Description

Points

Post 1

Post is relevant to the field fo Sensation and Perception, expands on the content of the book, and includes a reflection

25

Post 2

Post is relevant to the field fo Sensation and Perception, expands on the content of the book, and includes a reflection

25

Post 3

Post is relevant to the field fo Sensation and Perception, expands on the content of the book, and includes a reflection

25

Creativity and Uniqueness

You can add pictures, links, and other creative elements to each post.

15

Mechanics

Spelling, syntax, and organizational structure of the paper. Clear and organized.

10

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Chapter 2

Research Methodology

Section 1

Attention

Introspection

In the early history of Psychology, researchers relied on introspective data reported by individuals who had specific experiences.

​
Wilhelm Wundt - Image from Wikipedia

According to Wilhelm Wundt (the Father of Experimental Psychology), the ability to be scientifically introspective required practice. Since Wundt was focused on the conscious experiences that people had, this could not be directly observed by instruments (the instruments were designed to create and measure the experiences.) Researchers had to engage in introspection and contemplate/study their own experiences, one’s own mental state.

Creating conditions that would render this process more objective (there is not much experience we can say is more subjective than introspection) Wundt required that the instruments that were used were very specific and accurate, and he required his associates to have a tremendous amount of experience in self reflection. They had to have engaged in 10,000 introspections before the data they collected could be used in Wundt’s lab!

A description of the different apparatus present in Wilhelm Wundt’s Lab in Liepzig

Section 2

Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this Chapter, students should be able to:

Conduct a basic experiment in sensation and report the results.

Discuss situations in which expectations have impacted your perceptions along the lines of the Signal Detection Theory.

Section 3

Teaching

Reading

Schwartz, B.L., & Krantz, J.H. (2019). Chapter 2: Research Methodology. Sensation & Perception. (2nd Ed) Cengage

Phemonenology...strikes again!

Studying the Psychology of Sensation and Perception has some challenges! Recall in Chapter 1 we learned about Phenomenology. This term is used to describe the inner experience that we have of our world. When we study people’s perceptions of sensory experience we are relying on measures of their phenomenology in order to draw conclusions about their psychological and biological processes!

Reading the material at the beginning of the Chapter on hot sauces and the Scoville scale reminds me of how phenomenological this is! You see, I am NOT a super-taster and I’m very sensitive to hot spicy food. However, there are times when I seem to be able to tolerate some heat in my food (like adding Tabasco sauce on top of my omelettes!) I’m so sensitive that I sometimes find canned spaghetti sauce to be too hot!

How much of my sensitivity to spicy foods is associated with the presence of capsaicin and how much of it is personal perception and situational! I’m a bad subject for standardizing the Scoville scale!

Psychophysics

When we are conducting Sensation and Perception experiments we can turn to measures of the qualities of the stimulus (sound, light, touch, etc.) our our nervous system’s ability to sense them. Here are some measures that we can use that combine the physics of the stimulus and our psychobiology.

Method of Limits - the subject is presented with a stimulus and the intensity of the stimulus is reduced until they report that they do not sense it anymore.

This method is used to determine the absolute thresholds of our senses. The least amount of stimulus a person can sense.

Of course this is a lot of variability in this among different people.

I remember this in my old hearing tests where I had to detect a beep in one ear or the other!

Difference Threshold - the subject is presented with two stimuli. One of the stimuli is changed and the subject reports when they can sense that the stimuli are now different.

Method of Constant Stimuli - differs from the Method of Limits because all the stimuli are presented at the same time...some are sensed and others are not. This is used to determine both absolute threshold and difference thresholds.

Method of Adjustment - in this method the subject is in control of the intensity of the stimuli and they indicate both absolute threshold and difference threshold levels.

Point of Subjective Equality - the subject reports when they feel two stimuli are equal.

Magnitude Estimation - the subjects judge the magnitude of the stimuli in numerical estimates. Response Compression is the effect that indicates that a doubling of the actual physical stimuli does not double the magnitude perception.

We need a lot of different ways of measuring the sensed presence or absence of a stimulus because different stimuli and situations cause us to react in different ways. For example, if we wanted to be sure that different flag colors for signaling could be distinguished from one another from a ship, we would conduct various experiments on detection in various lighting conditions using a variety of methods.

Signal Detection Theory

Signal Detection Theory outlines the possible results of a person who is attempting to detect a stimulus...similar to the radar operator in the textbook example. The theory is expressed in the following table.

Response

The Signal is...

Present

Absent

Perceived it..

HIT

FALSE ALARM

Did not perceive it...

MISS

CORRECT REJECTION

As we approach a situation, we have criteria that we have set that would indicate our ability to achieve HITS and CORRECT REJECTIONS. This has a lot to do with the circumstances we are in. What are our expectations of a situation? Consider the following applications:

Your expectations going into an interview.

Your expectations meeting your ex.

Your expectations on your performance on a test.

While the impact of expectations on experience is even more complex than Signal Detection Theory, if we are primed to see things, we are more likely to see them! Sensitivity and criterion interact in interesting ways.

Increased sensitivity and decreased criterion will result in more HITS but also more FALSE ALARMS.

Decreased sensitivity and and increased criterion will result in more CORRECT REJECTIONS but increase MISSES.

Neuroimaging Techniques

Advances in brain imaging are allowing researchers to look into the active working brain during these experiments. These methods are used to determine where in the brain these sensations are being processed, and how they change over time.

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Here is a rendering of fMRI data.

These techniques involve the use of the following types of brain imaging.

Electroencephalography (EEG)

MOVIE - EEG Introduction to EEG

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I have to admit, I found this video to be absolutely fascinating and very well presented even though it is geared toward neurologists and medical/graduate students.

Magnetoencephalography

MOVIE - Measuring the Brain Activity with Magnetism

​
This video demonstrates not only the method of brain imaging but the actual use of this same technology to provide for an interface between our brain’s electrical field and computers and robots.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

MOVIE - Functional MRI (fMRI)

This is a great introduction to the methods and uses of fMRI, including a great introduction to brain physiology and the details of how fMRI works.

Transmagnetic Stimulation

MOVIE - Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

This is a highly detailed film of the application of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in the treatment of mental disorders. There are devices that people can buy to actually do this themselves and this video (geared toward medical students) provides details on the technology (to help you with the hype!)

Section 4

Assessment

Chapter 2 Discussion

This Chapter introduces the concept of Signal Detection Theory. While this theory has serious applications in the military, air traffic control, and public safety, it also has practical applications in everyday life. Consider situations in which your expectations and made your more likely to miss something that you should have seen or to see something that may not have been there.

I can’t help but think of how this operates when we are in relationships, but it can also apply to situations like test taking, concert experiences, etc.

Chapter 2 Assignment

Purpose

The purpose of this assignment is to engage you in conducting an actual experiment with others in your life related to perceptual limits. Sharing your learning with friends and family is a great way to learn the material and share the excitement of learning about Psychology.

Your digital textbook has a link to an Online experiment that you can conduct called “ISLE 2.2 - Method of Limits” This experiment will allow you to have discussions with others regarding how different people have diverse abilities to detect visual stimuli (in this case.)

Skills and Knowledge

You will demonstrate the following skills and knowledge by completing this assignment:

Understanding the process of conducting a sensory experiment with multiple subjects.

Recording and interpreting data on sensory limits.

Constructing a report that describes the experiment and the results.

Task

It will be critical for you to review the actual experiment information using the link in your digital textbook. Although the default settings are fine, you can choose to play around with the settings.

Find three people willing to do this experiment with you.

Read the background information to them and explain what they are going to do.

Conduct the experiment and record the results.

Write up your report using the rubric below as a guide.

Criteria for Success

Use the rubric below as a guide to this assignment.

Item

Performance Description

Points

Title Page

Standard title page with name, date, course, college name and the name of the assignment.

10

Summary of Methodology

Write up your procedure (how you actually conducted the study.)

20

Results

Make sure the results include the name (first only), age, time, date, and experimental results for each of at least 3 subjects.

30

Reflection

Write a brief reflection related to the findings from your experiment. Reflect on how these differences may manifest in the real world for these individuals.

30

Mechanics

Spelling, syntax, and organizational structure of the paper. Clear and organized.

10

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Chapter 3

Visual Systems - The Eye

Section 1

Attention

Wearing Glasses

The anatomical structure of the, including the cornea, lens, and the chamber enable the eye to focus external light onto the fovea for clear vision and ultimately, effective perception.

However, some people are born with abnormalities in the structure of the eye that require correction. Using glass to modify vision dates back to the ancient world where the Greeks and Romans used glass to enlarge small objects there were difficult to see with the naked eye.

In 1760, Benjamin Martin produced what is thought to be the first “eye glasses” called Martin’s Margins.

Benjamin Franklin added the versatility of bi-focals.

Modern eyeglasses are used to correct all sorts of eye problems, in particular problems with near-sightedness and far-sightedness. Modern lenses can be shaded, respond to light, and have coatings to prevent glare and reduce UV radiation!

About 64% of Americans wear corrective lenses of some kind. But the availability of glasses is not universal. The manufacture of high quality lenses is expensive and not available in some areas.

Many organizations accept old eye glasses as donations and redistribute them to those in need. Internationally, this problem is much more challenging.

ARTICLE - A Simple way to Improve a Billion Lives - Eyeglasses

Section 2

Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this Chapter, students should be able to:

Describe the structure and function of the eye and the retina.

Discuss real-world examples of Photopic and Scotopic vision.

Section 3

Teaching

Reading

Schwartz, B.L., & Krantz, J.H. (2019). Chapter 3: Visual System - The Eye. Sensation & Perception. (2nd Ed) Cengage

The Electromagnetic Field

As much as we rely on vision to do what we do in our lives, all that we experience in this amazing sense is but a very small band of wavelengths on the electromagnetic spectrum. We see the bands labeled as visible light, but there are a lot of other types of energy on this same spectrum.

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This image portrays the electromagnetic spectrum as being differentiated by varying wavelengths. The long wavelengths on the left represent radio waves while the short wavelengths on the right represent very dangerous and deadly gamma rays.

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This image suggests more detail on the wavelengths of different colors within the visible light portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. ​
We call the light that has a wavelength between 565 nm and 590 nm “Yellow.”

Without getting too deeply into the Physics of Light, we have to ensure that we can not only think of light as as “wave” but also as a particle, i.e. a “photon.” Sometimes light acts like a wave, and sometimes it acts like a particle. This particular aspect of light will come up throughout our discussion about vision because sometimes we will talk about wavelengths and sometimes we will talk about photons and how they interact with our nervous system!

The Eye and the Retina

Our eyes are amazingly complex structure that translate energy (waves and photons) into colors, shapes, light and dark, and motion and allow us to navigate and understand so much about the world around us.

The basic physiological make up of the eye is typical to all mammals. The basic process of vision is also similar, but it hides an incredible complexity of processes that allow us to see.

Light in the world reflects off objects around us and this light enters the eye through the pupil. The iris is a membrane that controls the amount of light that enters the eye and the cornea and the lens assists in focusing the light on the back surface of the eye, called the retina. The retina is made up of specialized nerves cells called rods and cones which transduce (convert) the energy into an electrochemical signal that is passed on through the optic nerve to be processed by the brain.

Review the various anatomical parts of the eye in your textbook as each of these parts are an important part of the process of vision.

Understanding the Retina

This section is going to expand on the already valuable textbook material on the structure and function of the retina. Please read both in order to gain an understanding of this amazing structure.

Here are some anatomical facts about the retina:

Receptors transduce light into a neural signal.

Rods are used in night vision, light detection, and are more dense in the periphery of our retina. We have about 120 million rods.

Cones are used for high visual acuity, color vision, and daytime vision and are concentrated around the Fovea. We have about 7 million cones.

The Fovea is a small pit in the retina that is the clearest focal point for light to hit.

Horizontal cells receive information from photoreceptors and send signals to the retinal ganglion cells.

Amacrine cells receive information from bipolar cells and other amacrine cells and cross talk with each other.

Retinal Ganglia cells receive information from bipolar cells and send signals to the brain via the optic nerve.

How Light-sensitive Cells Work

You have likely already learned about how a neuron undergoes a process of building an electrical potential, reaching a threshold, firing down the axon, and then releasing neurotransmitters at the distal end of the cell. Review this process now to refresh your memory.

MOVIE - Nerve Impulse

In light-sensitive neurons we find photopigments, which are molecules that absorb light and by doing so, change the voltage of the cellular membrane (and the process in the above video proceeds from there.) Other biological processes “reset” the molecule so it can become sensitive to light again.

Different photopigment molecules absorb different wavelengths of light (colors). One of these photopigments is called retinal and it is a form of Vitamin A. This is where we get the notion that eating lots of carrots (which are rich in Vitamin A) will improve eyesight! While excess carrots will likely not improve your vision if you eat a healthy diet, those with a Vitamin A deficiency can experience night blindness.

When enough photopigment cells are activated we eventually reach our perceptual threshold and we become aware of a new light stimulus.

Photopic and Scotopic Vision

As we move about in the day and through time we encounter different environments that have different levels of light (let alone the extremes of day and night.) Our eyes automatically adapt to the different light levels but it changes the way we see things. When there is plenty of light we engage more photopic vision, engage more cones, and we are more sensitive to colors.

When light is dim, we engage more rods and we are more sensitive to low light sources. This is scotopic vision.

One aspect of our photopic and scotopic vision is that we have some difficult discerning colors when we are in low light. Consider the image below.

The image above portrays a red flower in bright sun, at dusk, and at night. Notice how the colors become muted as we transfer from photopic to scotopic vision! The one in the middle is actually called mesopic vision.

Another aspect of photopic and scotopic vision is that there is a different in acuity. When we are engaging our scotopic vision (night vision) we are more interested in gathering light than seeing clearly. In our retina, many rods connect to a single ganglion cell. (Cones tend to have a more 1:1 relationship with the ganglion cells.) So, the net sensitivity of a number of rods can activate a single ganglion cell (this is called convergence.)

Note, that across our retina, we have ganglion cells that have a lot of convergence (many photoreceptive cells connect to it) while others might have only one. The diagram above reflects a stimulus across varied portions of the retina and how the specific convergence in that area will result in the increased or decreased action potential in the ganglion cells as they prepare to send a signal to the brain.

The lowest degree of convergence is in the fovea where cones dominate, the highest degree of convergence (thus sensitivity to dim light sources) is in the peripheral parts of the retina. This is why we see stars at night better if we are not looking directly at them!

Simply put, light and dark adaptation is the process by which we move from activating the photopic visual system and enact the scotopic vision system and back again. Red light is not readily absorbed by the cones in our retina, so for individuals who have to transition from lighted conditions to dark conditions and want to minimize the time for dark adaptation will work in lighted conditions that are lit in red light. The book mentions police officers, but star gazers use the same idea to light up start guides when they are outside finding stars in the sky.

Experience the night sky and stargazing (and the advantage of “night mode” - i.e. red mode) on this app for your iPad.

​
SkyView Lite

Edge Detection

Another critical aspect of vision is the detection of edges. This tells us where one object ends and another begins, or when an object ends and background takes over. In order for us to quickly judge the nature of objects around us, we use edge detection to identify familiar shapes and forms.

When we focus on an object, we are projecting that object onto our fovea. The surrounding cells around those that are stimulated by the object are detecting the background (all things that are not that object.) In order to maximize the clarity of the edges of the object and increase detection, the horizontal cells in the retina send inhibitory signals to the light sensitive cells immediately surrounding the object, a process called lateral inhibition, and thus the object itself is more clear and defined!

The Hermann Grid Illusion

In the above illusion many people experience that the points where the white lines cross are slightly shaded, but when you look directly at them, they are white. This is the effect of lateral inhibition which is inhibiting the sensitivity of the cells in your retina around the edge points of the black squares. Thus the white cross points appear “less white” and appear gray.

Section 4

Assessment

Chapter 3 Discussion

Photopic and Scotopic vision, along with the related Dark and Light Adaptation aspects of our experience with vision, happen every day. For this discussion you are to find an example of our perception of colors in bright and very dim light and capture two images that demonstrate this concept. You will post these pictures to the discussion board with a brief description.

In addition, share specific examples of light and dark adaptation situations from your own experience.

Chapter 3 Assignment

Purpose

The purpose of this assignment is for you to demonstrate your understanding of the structure and function of both the eye and the retina. The format for this demonstration of learning will be a recorded presentation using a specific tool called Adobe Spark Video.

Outlining your presentation, finding graphic elements, and recording (and re-recording) your audio presentation provides you with the opportunity to not only learn the concepts, but to practice public speaking and presentation skills.

Skills and Knowledge

You will demonstrate the following skills and knowledge by completing this assignment:

Knowledge on the eye and retina.

Public speaking and presentation skills.

Utilizing Adobe Spark Video to create a video slideshow with voice over.

Posting the LINK to your video (not the video itself) to the text box in the Assignment Drop Box.

Task

For this assignment you are going to create a presentation using Adobe Spark Video. This app allows you to construct individual slides including text and graphics with some degree of animation. The app allows you to then record a voice over for each slide (you talking about the content of the slide). You sequence the material in the slide show and create your presentation. In order to complete this assignment you are going to have to familiarize yourself with how to use Adobe Spark Video.

Here is a suggested approach to completing this assignment.

Outline the material on the structure/function of the eye and retina using your textbook, this CourseBook, and outside resources.

Gather graphic elements from the web to support each aspect of your presentation.

Using Adobe Spark Video create an appropriate number of slides for each segment of your presentation.

As you construct your slide you are to keep text on the slide to a minimum. Do not write out your presentation on the slide itself, you will be doing a voice-over recording of the presentation and the accompanying slide should be most made up of simple graphic elements that support what you are saying.

Complete the slide show (including retakes if you make mistakes.) Do not submit a presentation with mistakes because you have not taken the time to correct them. You have every opportunity to redo aspects of this presentation if you “mess up.”

Adobe Spark Video enables you to store your video on Adobe servers and acquire a LINK to that video. You will need to learn to do this so you can paste the LINK to your video into the textbook included in the Assignment Drop Box. Do not send the actual video, send a LINK to the video.

Ensure that the presentation meets all the criteria outlined in the rubric below.

​
Adobe Spark Video

Criteria for Success

Use the rubric below as a guide to this assignment.

Item

Performance Description

Points

Link to Video

The submission is a link to an Adobe Spark Video file

10

Eye

Basic Anatomy

20

Eye

Basic Function of parts of the eye

20

Retina

Basic anatomy and function

20

Retina

Account for Ganglion cells, Horizontal cells, Rods, Cones, etc.

20

Creative

The presentation reflects appropriate use of graphics to support message and is attractive and compelling.

10

Voice Over

Voice is clear and articulate. There is alignment between the slide graphic/text elements and the voice over.

10

​
 ​

Chapter 4

Visual Systems - The Brain

Section 1

Attention

Without the work of the brain, we could not see the world!

The actual light-collecting organ of our eyes actually does an amazing job of getting the information we need to see, but there is still a great deal of processing that needs to happen in order for us to see the way we do!

Notice the image above. This is a rendering of the “raw” data that is sent from the eye to the brain. For one, the image is upside down, obscured by blood vessels, mostly blurry except for the center, and has a blind spot! The brain turns this all around and creates the accurate and clear world that we experience every day!

Section 2

Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this Chapter, students should be able to:

Map visual stimuli as they move from the retina, through the optic nerve, through the optic chiasm and ultimately to the topography of the occipital lobe.

Distinguish between saccades and smooth pursuit eye movement.

Define the functional pathways in the Visual Cortex.

Section 3

Teaching

Reading

Schwartz, B.L., & Krantz, J.H. (2019). Chapter 4: Visual System - The Brain. Sensation & Perception. (2nd Ed) Cengage

Visual Brain Structures

One of the more fascinating aspects of the human brain is the lateralization of the vision system. By this I mean that the visual processing of the world through the vision system is processed differently on the left and right sides of the brain. The visual field of the real world is mapped topographically across the structures of the brain. There seems to be no real purpose for this particular structure other than an elegant and beautiful design.

The anatomy we are going to look at here involves the optic nerve, the optic chiasm, and the lateral geniculate nucleus.

The graphic above provides a visual representation about how information is processed from the retina of each eye, to selected ganglion cells that conduct information to specific parts of the optic nerve, through the optic chiasm to the visual processing parts of the brain.

The ISLP 4.1: Eye to LGN activity is a great way to visualize this process.

The Superior Colliculus

About 10% of the visual information from the eyes goes to the Superior Colliculus at the top of the brain stem. This area also receives information from the visual cortex and from the LGN. The SC is primarily responsible for eye movement.

We engage in two kinds of voluntary eye movement:

Smooth Pursuit Eye Movement - used when we are tracking a single object against a background, like a sign you are passing on the highway.

Saccades Movement - the “hopping” our eye makes as we look across a landscape (or a page when we are reading.)

The SC also receives information from our auditory and somatosensory parts of the brain allowing our eyes to move toward sounds and our senes of close objects or possible threats.

Lorna and Nystagmus

Early in my Mental Health career I met a young woman named Lorna. Lorna was diagnosed with Multiple Personality Disorder, but she also had a number of other health related diagnoses including albinism and nystagmus (these can often occur together.)

Nystagmus is a condition where the person experiences continual “saccades” movements in their eyes. Sometimes called “dancing eyes syndrome” the individual may or may not be aware of it depending on the severity. Lorna was aware of it and it disrupted her vision enough for her to wear special glasses. Otherwise her vision was fine.

VIDEO - Young Woman with Nystagmus

One of the curious aspects of Lorna’s nystagmus was that it did not manifest all the time. When she was in particular personalities, the condition would disappear! This baffled the medical community around Lorna because nystagmus is not considered to be psychogenic and should persist despite mental health issues!

The Visual Cortex

Now we are going to take a look at the structures of the actual brain that are primarily associated with vision. You may remember from your basic study of the lobes of the brain that the “Occipital Lobe” was located at the back of the brain.

The image above located the visual cortex (in green) and lists the following functions:

Visual reception area

Visual interpretation

Reading (perception and recognition)

You are actively using this part of your brain to read this text and process the information so that you understand the vision system that you are using to process this information...Yeah, its a bit circular isn’t it!?

One thing we do know about the visual cortex is that it is highly organized. The visual field is mapped across the anatomical structure of the visual cortex. We can, for instance, know the function of a cell in the cortex by knowing its position on this map of the visual field.

Primary Visual Cortex (V1)

These very complex structures in our brain are made up of layers of cells that are responsive to different types of stimuli at different orientations. This complexity is well documented in our text and does not deserve a repeat here. Consider, however, the concept of simple cells and complex cells in the V1.

Simple cells are neurons that respond to specific stimuli that are in particular orientation to their receptive fields. Complex cells are also responsive to particular orientations, but they respond to a variety of stimuli in different locations.

V1 cells are sensitive to a number of different components of a stimulus including color, motion, depth, direction, length, and size. Some complex cells also receive information from both eyes and may be involved in depth perception!

This illustration from our book shows how both vertical and horizontal cellular structure is sensitive to slightly different orientations of a bar across a field. For example, the yellow squares above indicate sensitivity to bars that are perpendicular, as you move away into the orange areas, you see sensitivity to bars slightly tilted to the left. So, stimuli from the eyes picking up a vertical bar will activate the yellow neurons and if the bar is tilted it will activate the orange ones!

V1 represents the beginning and most basic aspect of our visual system, hence the focus on simple stimuli such as orientation. The complexity of our perception is processed through deeper aspects of the visual cortex (V2, V3, V4, and V5) but we understand these less.

Functional Pathways

The actual primary function of our visual system is to identify objects in our world. The two processes that are being considered are a determination of WHAT the object is (recognition) and WHERE it is. If we are walking along a trail and we come across an animal, we begin to process these signals.

How would we process this stimulus?

Building on the image from our text, we simultaneously process the information to the ventral stream to determine what the stimulus is and to the dorsal stream to determine where it is. The answers to these questions are processed, and in this case the BEAR is CLOSE and we activate the Limbic System and the SENSORY/MOTOR cortices to get out of there!

Note: I am unsure if RUNNING from a bear is the best idea, so please consult a Game Warden before taking this advice!

The Mystery Continues

While we understand the generic pathways of how visual information moves around the brain, we are far from understanding the WHAT and WHERE of how all this information comes together to form the complex perceptual processes we consciously experience every day.

The myth that states we only use 10% of our brain is further put to rest by realizing how many different parts of our brain are “lit up” even with the most basic of activities, such as recognizing bears while walking in the woods.

Section 4

Assessment

Chapter 4 Quiz

Please follow the directions below.

For this set of questions you are going to map the flow of visual information from the retina to the visual cortex. You will be asked to map the information from the perspective of specific right or left eyes. Your answer will be the series of numbers that correspond to the pathway the information would take on the map of the brain.

Map the visual information corresponding with the letters in the image above along the pathway from the retina to the visual cortex. Use Figure 4.9 in the text to help yourself out!

Example - The second highest peak in the mountain (slightly to the right of the highest peak) from the perspective of the Right Eye would translate information along the 3-5-8 pathway!

Image point A from the Right Eye (4-6-9)

Image point F from the Right Eye (3-5-7)

Image point C from the Left Eye (1-5-7)

Distinguish between saccades and smooth pursuit eye movement.

Using an example similar to the one I used (the bear), describe the activation and results of a visual stimulus on the Dorsal and Ventral Streams. You cannot use a stimulus similar to mine (as in simply replacing the bear with a snake), your example has to be of a different object.​

Chapter 5

Object Perception

Section 1

Attention

Where’s Waldo

In the series of books called Where’s Waldo, the reader is challenged to find instances of the character “Waldo” hidden among a complex arrangement of distracting stimuli. Our brains work to establish basic patterns that we call “Waldo” and make effort to find him!

In this sense, we are using both top down (looking for objects that look like “Waldo” and bottom up (looking for objects with the stripes, round eyes, and hat) processing for recognizing Waldo. We will be learning more about these processes in the coming chapter.

!yrtsepat wolley eht ot txen thgir raf eht no dnuof eb nac odlaW

Try some Where’s Waldo puzzles and see how FAST you can find him!

Section 2

Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this Chapter, students should be able to:

Demonstrate Gestalt Rules of Organization that occur in our environment.

Demonstrate bottom up processing by identifying geons in a picture.

Discuss personal instances of facial recognition.

Section 3

Teaching

Reading

Schwartz, B.L., & Krantz, J.H. (2019). Chapter 5: Object Perception. Sensation & Perception. (2nd Ed) Cengage

Recognition

While the complexity of object recognition has always been appreciated, it was not until we decided to have computers recognize objects, such as in facial recognition software and self-driving cars, that we realized just how complex it is.

The Tesla Model 3 is my dream car!

The automaker run by Elon Musk has been working on technology that will allow their cars to drive themselves. The feature is called “AutoPilot” and is available today! While it is not perfect, AutoPilot is a system that has been developed to use a number of sensors and cameras around the car to detect and identify objects in the environment. The computer then processes this into a 3D rendition of the world and controls the car to navigate through this environment.

Here is a screen shot from the AutoPilot system identifying the different objects and object recognition on the part of the system. This all happens very quickly and involves quite a bit of processing power.

It is amazing to think that the average person can navigate using a car by the age of 14 or so!

Human Object Recognition

To understand how humans do this outstanding level of processing we need to explore the ways in which the mind processes incoming information. One model is called top down processing. This is the process by which our existing knowledge of objects influences the way we see things. In a way, if we are looking at an unfamiliar object, we might think about what elements of the objects seem to be based on our experience. This might lead to false leads on what the object is.

On the other hand, we have bottom up processing. This processing is the building up of an internalization of the object based on the physical stimuli itself with less cognitive processing. These processes can happen simultaneously. We can instantly recognize basic shape and color of an object, while also making educated guesses as to what it might be based on our experience.

Perceptual Organization

PO refers to the ways in which we organize stimuli into groups and patterns in order to increase recognition. Essentially, we engage in processes of grouping objects together and segregating objects from one another. In the early 20th century a number of psychologists, mostly based in Western Germany, concluded that the current theories of Psychology, Behaviorism and Psychodynamic Theory, were too constraining and did not capture the true human experience. Gestalt Psychology was born out of the work of Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Kohler.

Gestalt Perceptual Organization

The essential philosophical grounding of Gestalt Psychology is summed up in the phrase, “The whole is greater that the sum of its parts.” This applied to all aspects of psychological experience, but it is easiest to consider this in terms of perception.

Figure-Ground Organization

This is the process by which we determine which part of a stimulus represents the figure and which part is the background. Certain optical illusions and the science of camouflage work to make this determination difficult.

In this classic illustration, we can have difficulty determining which stimulus is the figure and which is the background...the two faces, or the vase?

VIDEO - Great Military Camouflage

This video is a bit shaky, but it is an excellent example of how camouflage can be used to hide a group of soldiers.

Perceptual Grouping

This rather complex set of Gestalt rules guides the way we perceive certain stimuli as a continual part of another stimuli and the characteristics of objects that influences our likelihood of grouping them together.

Law of Good Continuation - objects that have smooth edges are more likely to be seen as continuous than those with sharp edges.

Law of Proximity - objects that appear close together will more likely be grouped together.

Law of Similarity - objects that share characteristics such as size, orientation, and color will be grouped together.

Law of Symmetry - objects that if objects are symmetrical to one another they will be perceived as a unified group.

Law of Common Fate - elements that move together will be perceived as a unified group.

MOVIE - Law of Common Fate

This short video provides a good example of the Law of Common Fate

One of the interesting points to consider related to Gestalt Rules of Organization is how this relates to interacting with different people. Organizing individuals in our lives into categories, including racial and religious ones, is a natural application of the Gestalt Rules. When we take these perceptions too far is where we get into trouble with stereotyping and prejudice.

If the “color” example above represents friends of mine and their race, it is likely I know who my two blue friends are. However, I do not assume that all the other blue people out there are just like my two blue friends!

Perceptual Interpolation

This principle has a lot to do with how our brains construct logical continuity in the world around us. It also captures the notion that our brains look for the most simple or logical explanation for visual stimuli. Consider this classic illustration.

When encountering this image our brains attempt to create the most simple explanation which may be that it represents a white triangle with no borders on top of another triangle with borders and three circles underneath the white triangle.

This is much more “logical” than considering this a grouping of PacMan characters sitting next to “greater than” and/or “less than” signs!

Here is another example...look at the figure labeled “b” and the possible solutions for what can be there aside from what we assume...which is a square hiding part of a circle. The fact is, it could be a pac man biting a square, a circle with a square corner, or a circle with little knob on it...we don’t know but the simplest explanation is that it is a circle.

Recognition by Components (Bottom Up Processing)

One alternative way that we go about constructing visual elements to understand them is to break them down into basic shapes called Geons. Geons are basic geometric shapes that exist in our world that make up the properties of recognizable objects.

Here is a kind of expanded list of geons that we encounter in our world.

As our minds decipher objects that we see, we look to find familiar shapes and construct our understanding from the bottom up based on these component parts. This is particular true when we are looking at unfamiliar objects. However, we can look at common objects and identify the basic shapes involved.

In the image below I have placed letters corresponding to the geons that can be identified in the picture.

This kind of shape recognition occurs along the ventral pathway in the brain. Originating in V4 of the visual cortex and moving along the inferotemporal area. Specific locations within the inferotemporal area are geared toward recognizing faces.

Facial Recognition

This part of the brain is fairly active very early in human development. We seem to come into the world pre-programmed to recognize faces. According to Simion and Giorgia (2015), facial recognition involves a complex neural network in the brain. As adults, we process this information holistically (top down), however, early in life, the process of recognizing faces is more structural (bottom up) with a focus on specific facial elements and organization.

Shown this image, children will gaze longer at the image on the left because the organizational structures are arranged as a face...the middle image is exactly the same but the elements are reorganized.

MOVIE - How our Brain Recognizes Faces

Apple Technology and Facial Recognition

Within the commercial market one of the leaders in facial recognition is actually Apple, makers of the iPad and iPhone. The Face ID feature on modern phones utilizes a method of mapping a users face using infrared light pulses that are analyzed by the phone camera. In some ways this is similar to the mapping that we do as humans when we are recognizing a face.

MOVIE - How Face ID Works

Humans also scan faces and focus on particular aspects of the face in order to process recognition.

The traces on the right record where our eyes move about this picture as we process recognition. Notice the asymmetry of the vision (more on the right side of the face) and the amount of time spend on the eyes and mouth areas!

Section 4

Assessment

Chapter 5 Discussion

In this discussion I would like you to share experiences you have had regarding facial recognition. Have you ever encountered someone who you know you have met before but can’t remember their name? What about seeing people who look like celebrities? Share your stories of recognition, non-recognition, and embarrassing moments!

Chapter 5 Assignment

Purpose

The purpose of this assignment is to demonstrate your knowledge of both top down and bottom up processing using pictures that you gather with your own camera.

Understanding how we simultaneously engage these two processes, particularly when we are in unfamiliar environments, provides insight into how we handle new situations, the active processes we can engage in to acclimate, and the wonder of the human mind.

Skills and Knowledge

You will demonstrate the following skills and knowledge by completing this assignment:

Locating and collecting pictures of instances of Gestalt Organizational Rules.

Identifying specific geons associated with parts of an image.

Editing photos to label the geons.

Embedding photos into a document.

Uploading the document to the drop box.

Task

This one assignment is going to cover two learning outcomes.

To demonstrate top down processing you will seek out an image (or take one yourself) of objects that clearly depict one or more Gestalt Organizational Rules. Objects can be organized by any dimension, as suggested in the Teaching section of this CourseBook.

Here is a photo of the gate entrance to Stephen King’s house in Bangor, ME. Despite the metal bars of the fence, I see that the brick walkway is continuous. This is an example of Perceptual Interpolation.

To demonstrate bottom up processing, you are to find a simple picture of objects and identify all the geons in the image by editing letters into the actual picture that correspond to the geons in the image below.

The expectation is that you will insert these images into a document and do a small write up for each one. Construct your document in line with the rubric below.

Criteria for Success

Use the rubric below as a guide to this assignment.

Item

Performance Description

Points

Title Page

Standard title page with name, date, course, college name and the name of the assignment.

10

Image of Gestalt Organization

Image is posted into the document.

20

Explanation

Explanation identifies the Gestalt Principle and explains how it manifests in the picture.

10

Image with Geons

Image is pasted into the document with text labels inserted to identify geons.

10

Explanation

Explanation identifies the geons and how they manifest in the picture.

10

Mechanics

Spelling, syntax, and organizational structure of the paper. Clear and organized.

10

​
 ​

Chapter 6

Color Perception

Section 1

Attention

Are you Color Deficient?

Take the Ishihara Test for Red-Green Colorblindness

How did YOU do on the test? If you have found out that you are red-green impacted, how does this impact your life. Do you know anyone who claims to be color blind. Have them complete the test as well.

Section 2

Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this Chapter, students should be able to:

Discuss the incidence of Color Deficiency and how it impacts daily life.

Experiment with adjustments to hue, saturation, lightness, and brightness in pictures.

Section 3

Teaching

Reading

Schwartz, B.L., & Krantz, J.H. (2019). Chapter 6: Color Perception. Sensation & Perception. (2nd Ed) Cengage

Wavelengths

As we have discussed before, our eyes are sensitive to particular wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. From Chapter 3...

​
This image portrays the electromagnetic spectrum as being differentiated by varying wavelengths. The long wavelengths on the left represent radio waves while the short wavelengths on the right represent very dangerous and deadly gamma rays.

​
This image suggests more detail on the wavelengths of different colors within the visible light portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. ​
We call the light that has a wavelength between 565 nm and 590 nm “Yellow.”

All the objects in our world have a characteristic spectral reflectance which is the degree to which an object reflects light of specific wavelengths in order for us to see them.

Qualities of Color

When we are describing colors we use a number of terms:

Hue - refers to the color quality of the light and corresponds to the names we have for colors such as orange, green, and yellow.

Saturation - refers to the purity of the light and depicts the strength of the color. If something has zero saturation it appears grey.

Lightness - refers to the degree of intensity of the light reflecting from the surface, usually expressed in relation to dark (grey and black) to very light (white)

Brightness - the amount of color light present and our experience of the intensity of the light.

Photo editing apps on your devices allow you to adjust these levels manually to produce certain effects. I used the application Photoshop on my laptop to produce these examples. This is a picture of the roller coaster at Wildwoods Beach in New Jersey.

This is the normal image it was exported by my camera.

In this image I increased the BRIGHTNESS...it actually looks like sun is brighter.

In this image I adjusted the HUE.

In this image I reduced the SATURATION, the colors are there but not as vivid.

Finally I changed the LIGHTNESS, notice how this is different than the BRIGHTNESS above.

Color Mixing

Mixing colors together produces the variety of colors that we experience in our world. However, colors that are in print and colors that are light behave a bit different. Ink is used in print to control the wavelengths that will be reflected to the eye. If you mixed all the inks together (a process called subtractive color mixing) the resulting color would be black, i.e. hardly any light is reflecting.

However, if you were adding light colors to on another and combined them all together you would produce white light. This is a process called additive color mixing. We can see a degree of this type of color mixing when we go to see concerts.

Here is a photo of my band playing at Steel Stacks in Bethlehem, P.A.

Left to right - Gerald Brann, Rich D’aigle, Mark Kavanaugh, Mike Tobias, ​
and Kevin Ostrowski - Yellow Brick Road: Tribute to Elton John

Notice the red and blue lights on the left of the picture. Where they cross you can see a light purple color! If you look carefully though, the purple color is not darker than the individual red and blue lights, it might even be a bit lighter. This is an effect of combining different kinds of colored lights that give a multicolor experience to the audience!

Theories of Color

The textbook outlines two theories of color. While they used to be rival theories, we know now that they complement each other and both explain different aspects of the perception of color.

Trichromatic Theory

This theory aligns with the fact that we have three different types of cones in our retina and respond to different wavelengths. These three types of cones interact with one another and the aggregate message depicts the color to our brains. The relative mix of the three colors determines the color we see.

Monitors and TVs operate on trichromatic principles. The image below depicts a close up view of the Red, Green, and Blue (RGB) colors on a screen. Varying the intensity and density of these colors results in the brain seeing more than just Red, Green, or Blue.

Improvements in monitors come about when the individual lights can be made both brighter (more light and greater contrast) and smaller (greater clarity and definition.)

For comparison, a traditional TV screen has a screen resolution of 72 Red, Green, and Blue pixels per inch. On a normal 19 inch TV, that would come to about 1368 pixels diagonally from one corner to the other. 4K and 8K monitors boast an astonishing 4000 to 8000 pixels diagonally from one corner to the other.

Opponent-Process Theory

In contrast to the trichromatic theory, we recognize that while cones are sensitive to specific wavelengths, perception of color is adaptive and depends on surrounding colors. Just consider this simple example.

The relative activation and inhibition of neighboring cells creates a wider variety of colors. We can experience this adaptation through the experience of an after image. Consider that in an after image the existing colors are activating cells to respond to different colors and to suppress others. When this stimulus is suddenly taken away there can be a sort of “pendulum effect” which activates corresponding opponent colors and we see those instead. This is much better explained by an example: Go to ISLE 6.8: Color After Effect for a great experience.

Color and Lightness Constancy

The last subject for this chapter has to do with another quality that our brain has for interpreting sensory information. Constancy relates to our ability to understand an objects color and lightness (in this case) regardless of changes in the amount of light reflected from the object. Essentially, if a shadow cross your path, you do not perceive that the object changed color, it is just a temporary state due to the shadow.

Section 4

Assessment

Chapter 6 Discussion A

Discuss what you discovered in the Attention section of this Chapter. Do you have color deficiency? Does anyone you know have color deficiency? Discuss your experience and share any challenges your individual has in the real world due to color deficiency.

Chapter 6 Discussion B

For this discussion you will have to use an app on your device to make adjustments to a given picture. Complete a few adjustments of hue, saturation, brightness, and/or lightness and post the example to the board. Be sure to include both the original image and the edited image.

Discuss any instances in which you would want to make these kinds of adjustments.

Chapter 7

Depth & Size Perception

Section 1

Attention

The Visual Cliff

A very important aspect of visual development in children is the development of depth perception. Clearly the ability to realize that a floor that leads to a staircase implies some danger due to the floor panels on the stairs being far away is a skill we want our kids to have!

To study when depth perception seems to happen, psychologists developed an experiment that utilizes a device called a visual cliff.

In the experiment, children were placed on the shallow side and urged by caregivers to crawl to them on the deep side. Children who had developed depth perception would hesitate when they got to the “cliff” because they realized the floor pattern to be “further” away.

Here is a movie that demonstrates that the results of this experiment point to a strong innate ability for children to perceive depth.

MOVIE - The Visual Cliff Experiment

Section 2

Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this Chapter, students should be able to:

Discuss examples of monocular depth cues that exist in your home.

Conduct an experiment on the use of monocular cues without binocular cues.

Explain binocular disparity and its interaction with our visual horopter.

Section 3

Teaching

Reading

Schwartz, B.L., & Krantz, J.H. (2019). Chapter 7: Depth and Size Perception. Sensation & Perception. (2nd Ed) Cengage

Depth Perception

There are three ways in which we see the world in 3D, monocular cues, oculomotor, and binocular depth cues. Each of these is working in coordination with one another to produce the wonderful 3 dimensional world we live in.

From out textbook we have a great graphic tool to recognize all the ways in which our brain experiences depth!

Monocular Cues - Pictorial

If you look at a great painting the image may seem to jump out be “alive”. This perspective is interesting considering the fact that the painting is on a two dimensional canvas! So, how does that happen?

Artists have always been excellent observers of the real world and ever exploring of ways to represent the exciting 3D world in two dimensions. Their techniques encompass many of the monocular cues covered in the textbook.

Salvador Dali’s “Swans Reflecting Elephants” is a masterpiece of composition and perspective. Monocular cues represented here include occlusion, linear perspective, and shadowing.

M.C. Escher’s aptly named “Stairs” is a study in perspective, illusion, linear perspective, and shadow that creates an impossible image!

Monocular Cues - Motion

Have you ever been in an airplane? As you begin to pick up speed down the runway you are very aware of how fast you are going (and how close the ground is!) As you fly into the sky and get higher and higher it seems the ground below slows down. At flight altitude you can look down out the window and it hardly seems like you are moving!

Two things are going on, one is your perception of speed and the other is motion parallax. You know that the ground is far away because relative to you it is moving slowly.

By the way you can also experience this on the ground. Just watch how the lines on the highway seem to “speed up” as you approach them. Far away they seem to go slow and then they zip by as we pass them. Disney also developed the Multiplane Camera to create their first animated movies.

MOVIE - Disney’s Multiplane Camera

Oculomotor Cues

These set of cues have to do with the neurons that send us information about the position of our eyes. There is an easy way to experience this. Take your finger and point it up in front of you. With both eyes open slowly move your hand toward your face. As your eyes begin to cross you can feel the oculomotor neurons telling you that the object (your finger) is getting closer!

Stereograms are pictures that contain a hidden 3D image. You may have come across them before. While other vision mechanisms are involved, the major trick to seeing a stereogram is to resist the oculomotor eye movement.

Can you see the one in this image?

Check out this website on Stereograms!

This is the same as the binocular cue of vergence. ISLE 7.5 - Vergence is a great graphic representation of this.

Binocular Cues

Note: Your textbook actually comes with a set of 3D glasses...various images in your textbook and in the ISLE activities ask you to use these! The glasses actually accentuate the different wavelengths that have been put into the images and movies so that each eye gets a different version of the picture (or movie). This enables us to experience stereoscopic images. Traditional movies are 2D and we use monocular cues to infer the depth of the film.

In addition to all of this, we actually have two eyes! When we use BOTH of them we have at our disposal a bunch of other data to help us see the depth in our world. The key to our binocular vision is that the data entering the right eye overlaps with the data entering from our left eye. Since the eyes are slight apart from one another these images are slightly different. When they overlap, out brain constructs an image of the world in 3D! Binocular Disparity is the term that describes the difference between what each eye takes in.

The book goes into a rather lengthy discussion about how our eyes process information to create our 3D world that is fascinating. It is also a bit complex. Read this section extensively and I’m going to provide a short explanation below as to how I interpret this.

In the image above you see reference to three objects in the visual field (R, P, and Q). When we focus on an object it “creates” the “horopter” of our vision for that moment. Objects along the line of the horopter are perceived in 3D due to our monocular cues, objects closer or further from our horopter are perceived in 3D due to monocular disparity.

In the example above, P and Q are perceived with monocular cues and R is perceived with binocular cues. If we then focused on the R we would create a new horopter there and the P and Q wold then be perceived using binocular cues because they would be beyond the horopter.

Viewmaster

No discussion of retinal disparity for 3D vision would be complete with out a discussion of Viewmaster! Some of you may remember the ViewMaster with circular cards with matching pictures. This toy worked in a very similar manner!

Visit ViewMater today! They still exist, and now they do VR and Apps!

Size Perception

Size estimations and distance are processes that intertwine. As stated in the text, when we watch professional basketball players from a distance, it is difficult to see the large difference in size (because they are far away but they are also around other tall people.) Check out the two images below of Shaquille O’Neal!

On the court he is big, but among other big people.

For perspective, Wahlberg is 5’8”, Dwayne Johnson is 6’5”, Charles Barkley is 6’6”, and Shaquille O’Neal is 7’1”

We perceive the relationship between distance and height in the way that it portrays an image on our retina. Close objects project on a large surface area and the same object will project onto a smaller surface area on our retina. Because we know that objects do not miraculously grow and shrink, our brains interpret these differences as being due to distance, i.e. depth! Our assumptions that objects to not change size is called size constancy.

Illusions

One of the fascinating applications of data from basic science in visual perception come in the form of optical illusions. We have already seen one in Chapter 3 with the Hermann Grid Illusion that illustrates lateral inhibition.

The Hermann Grid Illusion

Depth and size illusions confuse the mind and draw us into making false judgements of depth and size. These techniques are used by artists to create realistic images but to also, well, simply put, to mess with our minds!

The image of the Müller-Lyer Illusion from our text is a classic one. By inverting the arrow directions on each end of the line, we create the illusion that one line is longer than the other.

Here are some other related illusions about judging size and shape relative to surrounding visual information.

Ames Room Illusion

Because of the assumptions we make about the world around us, we can be tricked into seeing things that are impossible. A great example of this is the Ames Room.

MOVIE - Ames Room

If you are enterprising and creative, you can use the instructions available below to create your own little Ames Room for fun at home!

How to make and Ames Room

Section 4

Assessment

Chapter 7 Discussion A

Monocular cues for depth are all around us. Identify examples of monocular cues that exist in your own home that allow you to perceive depth. If you wish, you can take pictures of the items and explain them. This discussion should identify a whole bunch of monocular cues.

Here is an example:

This is a picture hanging on the wall in my dining room. The monocular depth cue that this represents is linear perspective. Although the left vertical side of the picture appears shorter, I know that the picture is a rectangle (not a trapezoid!) and thus I can tell that the left vertical side is farther away.

Chapter 7 Discussion B

For this activity I want you to safely conduct an experiment. Using some first aid supplies cover your dominant eye so that you cannot see out of it. Spend some time doing a simple activity such as washing the dishes. Do about half the activity with the patch on and then the rest of the activity with the patch off (thus enabling binocular cues.) Report out on this experience and the differences you observed.

Chapter 1 Quiz

In your own words, explain binocular disparity and how it interacts with our perceived horopter so that we experience some objects using monocular depth cues and other objects using binocular depth cues. Be sure to use a combination of my “simple” explanation, and the more complex explanation in the textbook!

EXTRA CREDIT

If you want to earn some extra credit, use the resource in the Teaching section on building your own Ames Room and make a demonstration video about it. Your instructor will negotiate with you as to how this “extra credit” can be used.

An OPTIONAL discussion board will be created in the class in order for you to post this video (preferably a LINK to the video that you created and loaded to YouTube or Vimeo.)

Chapter 8

Movement & Action

Section 1

Attention

TBA

Section 2

Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this Chapter, students should be able to:

TBA

Section 3

Teaching

Reading

Schwartz, B.L., & Krantz, J.H. (2019). Chapter 8: Movement and Action. Sensation & Perception. (2nd Ed) Cengage

TBA

TBA

Section 4

Assessment

Chapter 1 Discussion

TBA

Chapter 1 Quiz

TBA

Chapter 1 Assignment

Purpose

TBA

Skills and Knowledge

You will demonstrate the following skills and knowledge by completing this assignment:

TBA

Task

TBA

Criteria for Success

Use the rubric below as a guide to this assignment.

Item

Performance Description

Points

Title Page

Standard title page with name, date, course, college name and the name of the assignment.

10

Image of Advertisement

The ad is pasted into the document

20

Unconditioned Stimulus

Correctly identified the US

10

Unconditioned Response

Correctly identified the UR

10

Neutral Stimulus

Correctly identified the NS

10

Conditioned Stimulus

Correctly identified the CS

10

Conditioned Response

Correctly identified the CR

10

Essay on Audience

Sound logic and rational for audience choice.

10

Mechanics

Spelling, syntax, and organizational structure of the paper. Clear and organized.

10

​
 ​

Chapter 9

Visual Attention

Section 1

Attention

TBA

Section 2

Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this Chapter, students should be able to:

TBA

Section 3

Teaching

Reading

Schwartz, B.L., & Krantz, J.H. (2019). Chapter 9: Visual Attention. Sensation & Perception. (2nd Ed) Cengage

TBA

TBA

Section 4

Assessment

Chapter 1 Discussion

TBA

Chapter 1 Quiz

TBA

Chapter 1 Assignment

Purpose

TBA

Skills and Knowledge

You will demonstrate the following skills and knowledge by completing this assignment:

TBA

Task

TBA

Criteria for Success

Use the rubric below as a guide to this assignment.

Item

Performance Description

Points

Title Page

Standard title page with name, date, course, college name and the name of the assignment.

10

Image of Advertisement

The ad is pasted into the document

20

Unconditioned Stimulus

Correctly identified the US

10

Unconditioned Response

Correctly identified the UR

10

Neutral Stimulus

Correctly identified the NS

10

Conditioned Stimulus

Correctly identified the CS

10

Conditioned Response

Correctly identified the CR

10

Essay on Audience

Sound logic and rational for audience choice.

10

Mechanics

Spelling, syntax, and organizational structure of the paper. Clear and organized.

10

​
 ​

Chapter 10

The Auditory System

Section 1

Attention

TBA

Section 2

Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this Chapter, students should be able to:

TBA

Section 3

Teaching

Reading

Schwartz, B.L., & Krantz, J.H. (2019). Chapter 10: The Auditory System. Sensation & Perception. (2nd Ed) Cengage

TBA

TBA

Section 4

Assessment

Chapter 1 Discussion

TBA

Chapter 1 Quiz

TBA

Chapter 1 Assignment

Purpose

TBA

Skills and Knowledge

You will demonstrate the following skills and knowledge by completing this assignment:

TBA

Task

TBA

Criteria for Success

Use the rubric below as a guide to this assignment.

Item

Performance Description

Points

Title Page

Standard title page with name, date, course, college name and the name of the assignment.

10

Image of Advertisement

The ad is pasted into the document

20

Unconditioned Stimulus

Correctly identified the US

10

Unconditioned Response

Correctly identified the UR

10

Neutral Stimulus

Correctly identified the NS

10

Conditioned Stimulus

Correctly identified the CS

10

Conditioned Response

Correctly identified the CR

10

Essay on Audience

Sound logic and rational for audience choice.

10

Mechanics

Spelling, syntax, and organizational structure of the paper. Clear and organized.

10

​
 ​

Chapter 11

The Auditory Brain & Sound Localization

Section 1

Attention

TBA

Section 2

Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this Chapter, students should be able to:

TBA

Section 3

Teaching

Reading

Schwartz, B.L., & Krantz, J.H. (2019). Chapter 11: The Auditory Brain and Sound Localization. Sensation & Perception. (2nd Ed) Cengage

TBA

TBA

Section 4

Assessment

Chapter 1 Discussion

TBA

Chapter 1 Quiz

TBA

Chapter 1 Assignment

Purpose

TBA

Skills and Knowledge

You will demonstrate the following skills and knowledge by completing this assignment:

TBA

Task

TBA

Criteria for Success

Use the rubric below as a guide to this assignment.

Item

Performance Description

Points

Title Page

Standard title page with name, date, course, college name and the name of the assignment.

10

Image of Advertisement

The ad is pasted into the document

20

Unconditioned Stimulus

Correctly identified the US

10

Unconditioned Response

Correctly identified the UR

10

Neutral Stimulus

Correctly identified the NS

10

Conditioned Stimulus

Correctly identified the CS

10

Conditioned Response

Correctly identified the CR

10

Essay on Audience

Sound logic and rational for audience choice.

10

Mechanics

Spelling, syntax, and organizational structure of the paper. Clear and organized.

10

​
 ​

Chapter 12

Speech Perception

Section 1

Attention

TBA

Section 2

Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this Chapter, students should be able to:

TBA

Section 3

Teaching

Reading

Schwartz, B.L., & Krantz, J.H. (2019). Chapter 12: Speech Perception. Sensation & Perception. (2nd Ed) Cengage

TBA

TBA

Section 4

Assessment

Chapter 1 Discussion

TBA

Chapter 1 Quiz

TBA

Chapter 1 Assignment

Purpose

TBA

Skills and Knowledge

You will demonstrate the following skills and knowledge by completing this assignment:

TBA

Task

TBA

Criteria for Success

Use the rubric below as a guide to this assignment.

Item

Performance Description

Points

Title Page

Standard title page with name, date, course, college name and the name of the assignment.

10

Image of Advertisement

The ad is pasted into the document

20

Unconditioned Stimulus

Correctly identified the US

10

Unconditioned Response

Correctly identified the UR

10

Neutral Stimulus

Correctly identified the NS

10

Conditioned Stimulus

Correctly identified the CS

10

Conditioned Response

Correctly identified the CR

10

Essay on Audience

Sound logic and rational for audience choice.

10

Mechanics

Spelling, syntax, and organizational structure of the paper. Clear and organized.

10

​
 ​

Chapter 13

Music Perception

Section 1

Attention

TBA

Section 2

Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this Chapter, students should be able to:

TBA

Section 3

Teaching

Reading

Schwartz, B.L., & Krantz, J.H. (2019). Chapter 13: Music Perception. Sensation & Perception. (2nd Ed) Cengage

TBA

TBA

Section 4

Assessment

Chapter 1 Discussion

TBA

Chapter 1 Quiz

TBA

Chapter 1 Assignment

Purpose

TBA

Skills and Knowledge

You will demonstrate the following skills and knowledge by completing this assignment:

TBA

Task

TBA

Criteria for Success

Use the rubric below as a guide to this assignment.

Item

Performance Description

Points

Title Page

Standard title page with name, date, course, college name and the name of the assignment.

10

Image of Advertisement

The ad is pasted into the document

20

Unconditioned Stimulus

Correctly identified the US

10

Unconditioned Response

Correctly identified the UR

10

Neutral Stimulus

Correctly identified the NS

10

Conditioned Stimulus

Correctly identified the CS

10

Conditioned Response

Correctly identified the CR

10

Essay on Audience

Sound logic and rational for audience choice.

10

Mechanics

Spelling, syntax, and organizational structure of the paper. Clear and organized.

10

​
 ​

Chapter 14

Touch & Pain

Section 1

Attention

TBA

Section 2

Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this Chapter, students should be able to:

TBA

Section 3

Teaching

Reading

Schwartz, B.L., & Krantz, J.H. (2019). Chapter 14: Touch and Pain. Sensation & Perception. (2nd Ed) Cengage

TBA

TBA

Section 4

Assessment

Chapter 1 Discussion

TBA

Chapter 1 Quiz

TBA

Chapter 1 Assignment

Purpose

TBA

Skills and Knowledge

You will demonstrate the following skills and knowledge by completing this assignment:

TBA

Task

TBA

Criteria for Success

Use the rubric below as a guide to this assignment.

Item

Performance Description

Points

Title Page

Standard title page with name, date, course, college name and the name of the assignment.

10

Image of Advertisement

The ad is pasted into the document

20

Unconditioned Stimulus

Correctly identified the US

10

Unconditioned Response

Correctly identified the UR

10

Neutral Stimulus

Correctly identified the NS

10

Conditioned Stimulus

Correctly identified the CS

10

Conditioned Response

Correctly identified the CR

10

Essay on Audience

Sound logic and rational for audience choice.

10

Mechanics

Spelling, syntax, and organizational structure of the paper. Clear and organized.

10

​
 ​

Chapter 15

Olfaction & Taste

Section 1

Attention

TBA

Section 2

Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this Chapter, students should be able to:

TBA

Section 3

Teaching

Reading

Schwartz, B.L., & Krantz, J.H. (2019). Chapter 15: Olfaction and Taste. Sensation & Perception. (2nd Ed) Cengage

TBA

TBA

Section 4

Assessment

Chapter 1 Discussion

TBA

Chapter 1 Quiz

TBA

Chapter 1 Assignment

Purpose

TBA

Skills and Knowledge

You will demonstrate the following skills and knowledge by completing this assignment:

TBA

Task

TBA

Criteria for Success

Use the rubric below as a guide to this assignment.

Item

Performance Description

Points

Title Page

Standard title page with name, date, course, college name and the name of the assignment.

10

Image of Advertisement

The ad is pasted into the document

20

Unconditioned Stimulus

Correctly identified the US

10

Unconditioned Response

Correctly identified the UR

10

Neutral Stimulus

Correctly identified the NS

10

Conditioned Stimulus

Correctly identified the CS

10

Conditioned Response

Correctly identified the CR

10

Essay on Audience

Sound logic and rational for audience choice.

10

Mechanics

Spelling, syntax, and organizational structure of the paper. Clear and organized.

10

​
 ​

Chapter 16

Special Assignments

Section 1

Sensation(al) Presentations

Purpose

TBA

Skills and Knowledge

You will demonstrate the following skills and knowledge by completing this assignment:

TBA

Task

TBA

Criteria for Success

Your assignment will be graded using the following rubric:

Item

Performance Description

Points

Title Page

Standard title page with name, date, course, college name and the name of the assignment.

10

Timeline for Psychologist

Timeline includes:

Date and place of birth

Places they have lived

Educational Milestones

Publication and/or presentations milestones

Family events

Death (if applicable)

40

Timeline for Europe

Relevant social and cultural events.

20

Timeline for US

Relevant social and cultural events.

20

Mechanics

Spelling, syntax, and organizational structure of the paper. Clear and organized.

10

Section 2

TBA copy

Purpose

TBA

Skills and Knowledge

You will demonstrate the following skills and knowledge by completing this assignment:

TBA

Task

TBA

Criteria for Success

Your assignment will be graded using the following rubric:

Item

Performance Description

Points

Title Page

Standard title page with name, date, course, college name and the name of the assignment.

10

Timeline for Psychologist

Timeline includes:

Date and place of birth

Places they have lived

Educational Milestones

Publication and/or presentations milestones

Family events

Death (if applicable)

40

Timeline for Europe

Relevant social and cultural events.

20

Timeline for US

Relevant social and cultural events.

20

Mechanics

Spelling, syntax, and organizational structure of the paper. Clear and organized.

10

Appendix

No...well, not THAT kind of appendix...

This section of the CourseBook contains content that is standard to all of the CourseBooks in this series. This content includes information on writing, APA Style, using the iPad, and App Tutorial.

Chapter 17

Writing & APA Format

In all of education writing continues to be one of the most important skills that one should develop. Despite the growth of multimedia, writing continues to be the most effective method of conveying both simple and complex ideas. Our writing is also the most pure expression of our academic knowledge and is the principle medium through which we will communicate this knowledge to others.

The field of Psychology puts a high premium on writing ability across all levels of education. Psychology is largely based in the world of ideas that are best described and demonstrated. It can be said that the basic goals of Psychology, to describe, explain, predict, and control human behavior, are largely brought about and demonstrated to others through the written word.

Learning to communicate clearly through writing will be an essential component of every CourseBook in this series. Activities and assignments will often involve communicating your ideas clearly to others (classmates and teachers). You will also be able to appreciate how important it is to read others’ ideas when they are delivered through good writing.

The American Psychological Association has developed standards for writing, form, and layout that creates uniform expectations for all professional writing in the field. This format of writing, commonly known as APA Format or Style, has been so successful that many other fields of study have adopted the APA Format style as their own.

While other styles exist (Chicago, MLA, etc.) and are similar in many ways to the APA Format, the APA outlines very specific and exact methods by which authors express themselves in writing in order to be considered legitimate by other professionals in the field. Through the activities and assignments in these CourseBooks you will be asked to submit your work in-line with these expectations.

Section 1

Doing Research

​

Academic Research

Research, of any kind, is all about answering questions. How we ask these questions can lead us to different kinds of answers.

Developing Good Research Questions

The difference between a research paper and other forms of writing apparent within the definition of a Research Paper.

A research paper is a document that explores the knowledge that is available within a particular field of study and presents that knowledge in the effort to answer a particular research question.

The point is that you are looking at a body of knowledge in a field, such as psychology, sociology, or communication, and you are trying to find out what we already know about the question you have.

How you phrase that question is key to getting at the right information!

Coming up with questions...

There are all sorts of interesting things to think about in the Social Sciences...really, we deal with everyday life and the extremes of human behavior.

However, we have been at this for quite some time so some of the basic questions such as "What is abnormal?", or "How do people communicate?", or even, "What is Schizophrenia?" have been written about enough and the answers to these questions are either easy to find with simple searchers or they are very complex and beyond the scope of a research paper.

You want to focus you paper on a very specific question that is important to you...that will not only narrow down your search for answers, but it will also motivate you to do the paper.

Focus, Focus, Focus

Good research try to answer "real" questions...not just definitions like you might do in an expository paper. Since so much research has already been done you have to narrow your topic and focus your research.

Examples:

Here are some examples of how you transform an interesting TOPIC into a researchable QUESTION

TOPIC: Differences between the genders in communication

RESEARCHABLE QUESTION: What strategies can couples use to mitigate the different styles of communication between men and women?

RESEARCHABLE QUESTION: How do men and women's communication styles differ in the context of a Muslim community?

RESEARCHABLE QUESTION: How do men and women interpret "assertiveness" and "aggressiveness" in interpersonal communication?

TOPIC: Autism

RESEARCHABLE QUESTION: Which behavior modification techniques are best for use with a child with moderate Autism in the home?

RESEARCHABLE QUESTION: What is the impact of having a sibling with Autism on perceived sense of responsibility in the home?

TOPIC: Religion or prayer or meditation

RESEARCHABLE QUESTION: What are the potential physiological benefits of deep prayer and/or meditation?

RESEARCHABLE QUESTION: What is the relationship between religious belief and happiness in marriage?

As you can see...these questions are MUCH more precise and they answer REAL WORLD questions!

Your task is to move from TOPIC to RESEARCHABLE QUESTION

Sometimes you need to go ahead and begin searching on Google or within the Online Databases to find out what may be interesting to study!

What we already know...the Literature Review

To this end, academic research has a lot to do with discovering what we already know. Each academic paper that we write is attempting to answer a question. Maybe we are wondering what Schizophrenia is, maybe we want to describe what happened during the last year of the American Revolution. No matter what, our work will focus on finding out what we already know.

There are many sources of information in our world. Sadly, many of them are not really reliable. For this kind of work we want to focus our energies on the most reliable information we can find. We want to focus on what is known as Peer Reviewed Literature.

What is a Peer Reviewed Article?

Peer Reviewed Article is an article that has been reviewed by others in the field for accuracy and good methodology

These articles tend to appear in special publications called "Journals"

Nearly every field has a Journal of some kind where the latest research in the field is reported to others who are professionals and also interested in the field

Here is a VERY small list of some of the journals from the field of Psychology (You won't find these at Barnes and Noble):

Asian American Journal of Psychology

Consulting Psychology Journal

Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology

Health Psychology

Journal of Comparative Psychology

Neuropsychology

If we were to look up information on "communication between men and women", here is an example of a typical peer reviewed article:

Junco, R., Merson, D., & Salter, D. W. (2010). The effect of gender, ethnicity, and income on college students' use of communication technologies. CyberPsychology, Behavior & Social Networking, 13(6), 619-627.

Using Google for Academic Research

In this section I'm going to provide a method for finding interesting topics to write about that has been effective for me for several years of college...using Google (or any other search engines)!

Let's say you want to do some research on communication between men and women. You are in trouble:

There are whole books written on this topic, let alone a paper!

You don't have a question yet so how are you going to find information to answer it?

Here are the steps that I take:

Step 1 - Check out related research that is listed in your book. This puts you in touch with some research that has been done and also introduces you to specific terms that might be used by those who study this topic

Terms that are going to be important for your "communication between men and women" topic include:

gender

communication

gender differences

interpersonal

communication styles

interpersonal relationships

Step 2 - Now that you have some of the terms that you need to use to get to this topic, you can use Google!

Google is a great search engine and it is a great place to START your search but it is only a start...ultimately you have to get to the real "Peer Reviewed Research" (as described prior to this section.

Place your search terms into Google in quotes so that you get hits that include the entire phrase.

I tried this one: "communication styles between the genders"

I got over 5 million hits, but I don't need all of them!

Once you have a list of hits, start going through them and see if you can locate the NAMES of the researchers who are doing this kind of work

My search revealed, on just the first page, the following researchers:

Deborah Tannen

John Gray

Beverly Langford

Debra Warner

Rhonda Kelley

I also got some interesting ideas for where I might want to go with this

Communication between men and women in the context of a Christian community

Gender communication and emotional discomfort

Gender styles and trust

Step 3 - Now that you have some names and some potential topics...you need to go find out what these leading researchers are doing NOW...you can also look up some of the specific topics and ideas you got...so where do you go to find out what these folks are doing NOW?

You need to explore the actual articles listed in the back of your textbook

You need to familiarize yourself with the online databases at KVCC

Using your Textbook and Online Databases for Research

One good source for interesting topics is likely your textbook. Not only does it provide for a huge collection of topics, but it also provides you with some references to some of the best research being done on that topic.

Let's say you want to do some research on communication between men and women. You are in trouble:

There are whole books written on this topic, let alone a paper!

You don't have a question yet so how are you going to find information to answer it?

Here are the steps that I take:

Step 1 - Check out related research that is listed in your book. This puts you in touch with some research that has been done and also introduces you to specific terms that might be used by those who study this topic

Terms that are going to be important for your "communication between men and women" topic include:

gender

communication

gender differences

interpersonal

communication styles

interpersonal relationships

In addition, in the back of your book you will find references to Peer Reviewed Articles that have been published on your topics

You find the section in your book that has to do with your topic

In that section you will find references to real research being done...the authors and the date of the publication are listed in the textbook like this: (Kavanaugh, 2005)

Look up the name and year in the back of the book in the References section and you can see all the information you need to find the original article in the Online Databases

Step 2 - If you need to, reference the section on using Google and get names and topics from there

Step 3 - Now that you have some names and some potential topics...you need to go find out what these leading researchers are doing NOW...you can also look up some of the specific topics and ideas you got...so where do you go to find out what these folks are doing NOW? To the library online databases

Step 4 - The KVCC library maintains an extensive collection of online, searchable, databases that contain Peer Reviewed Articles (see the tutorial section on Peer Reviewed Articles) from authors such as the ones listed above

Step 5 - It will be important to learn how to use search strings. quotes, and then limiting your results to "peer reviewed" and "full text" are skills you can acquire best when you are actually in the Library databases.

Step 6 - Read the Abstracts of the articles to see which ones catch your eye

Abstracts are the short summaries of the articles you find that go over the basic premiss and findings in the article

This should help you identify some interesting questions that can then be formulated into your Research Questions!

Step 7 - When you find a good article that seems to be about what you want to study...take a look at the last pages of the article. The author has listed all the PAST research that has contributed to their thinking when they wrote the article you are reading. This provides you with a great list of articles to look up!

Avoiding Plagiarism

Knowing that you have reliable, peer reviewed, information to support your paper, you need to tell your reader where you got the information when you write about it. If you don’t do this, you are guilty of what is called Plagiarism.

The resources below should help you in avoiding plagiarism in your paper.

Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing

Using Quotations​
Used effectively, quotations can provide important pieces of evidence and lend fresh voices and perspectives to your narrative. Used ineffectively, however, quotations clutter your text and interrupt the flow of your argument. This handout will help you decide when and how to quote like a pro.

What is Plagiarism?​
This is a very entertaining and informative video produced by Rutgers University

PaperRater​
Along with these other sources, you can also access a website service called PaperRater that will check your paper for any instances of Plagiarism.

Visit PaperRater​
Follow the instructions from there.

Section 2

General Writing Style and Clarity

​

Academic Voice​
Over the time that you are in school you are going to be asked to write a number of different papers, essays, and answers to questions. One of the things that begin to appear over time is the development of your Academic Voice.

Your Academic Voice is the unique way in which YOU write and convey information. Your writing should not be an imitation of others' voices but be your own.

In the early development of Academic Voice a lot of students have a tendency to try and write "complicated" or to appear "smart" in their writing. But this language does not come naturally and it is apparent to the reader that you are not writing in your own academic voice. The purpose of writing is to convey what you know to your reader. Use language that is, for the most part, comfortable for you and seek assistance when you need to learn how to write about more complex subjects and use more precise terms.

Keep in mind that Academic Voice develops over time. Over years of study and work in your field you will become more and more expert at how to write.

Basic Writing Skills

These resources are presented to you in order to assist you with some of the basic writing skills such as grammar, punctuation, word choice, etc.

If you have challenges in these areas, use the resources below, or better yet, get help from writing tutors available at the College.

Grammar

Grammar on the Purdue OWL website​
​

If instructors have ever returned your papers with "frag", "S.F.", "R.O.", or "run-on" written in the margin, you may find this handout useful. It will help you locate and correct sentence fragments and run-ons.

Conveying your Message

Word Choice​
This handout can help you revise your papers for word-level clarity, eliminate wordiness and avoid clichés, find the words that best express your ideas, and choose words that suit an academic audience.

Conciseness​
The goal of concise writing is to use the most effective words. Concise writing does not always have the fewest words, but it always uses the strongest ones. Writers often fill sentences with weak or unnecessary words that can be deleted or replaced. Words and phrases should be deliberately chosen for the work they are doing. Like bad employees, words that don't accomplish enough should be fired. When only the most effective words remain, writing will be far more concise and readable

On Paragraphs​
The goal of these resources is to show you how to write understandable and coherent paragraphs.

Introduction and Conclusions

Writing Clearly​
One of the most frustrating situations I have encountered in student writing has been a lack of clarity. I can tell what you are trying to say, but you are just not coming across clearly. Here are some basic approaches and tips to writing clearly.

The Basic Format of an Essay

Writing clearly is a very important aspect of this process. Consider yourself as the guide to your reader’s exploration of your ideas. You need to gently bring them into your cognitive space and slowly and intentionally support your ideas.

Writing Essays

Nearly everything you might write in a social science class is an essay of some type. Everything from a discussion post to an answer to a question, to a research paper.

When you read excellent writing you know it. It is clear, concise, and it leads you, the reader, through the thought process of the writer and when you are done...you understand what they are talking about.

It is critical that you develop good essay writing skills in the Social Sciences.

My favorite model for essay/paper writing is as follows:

You start out introducing the topic in general terms and then gradually work your way toward the thesis...this first part should show the reader why your question is important

The "thesis" is your actual research question.

You should then present your arguments/research/data that support/refute/answer your question

You should then bring the reader back to the question (the recapitulation of the thesis)

Then work your way out again towards general information and/or the practical application of your answers

Here is a graphic that represents the rhythm and structure of an essay or a paper. (There is a larger version of this same graphic at the end of this chapter.)

Here are some additional resources on writing clearly:

Understanding Assignments​
The first step in any successful college writing venture is reading the assignment. While this sounds like a simple task, it can be a tough one. This handout will help you unravel your assignment and begin to craft an effective response. Much of the following advice will involve translating typical assignment terms and practices into meaningful clues to the type of writing your instructor expects.

Writing Essay Exams​
At some time in your undergraduate career, you're going to have to write an essay exam. This thought can inspire a fair amount of fear: we struggle enough with essays when they aren't timed events based on unknown questions. The goal of this link is to give you some easy and effective strategies that will help you take control of the situation and do your best.

The 5-Paragraph Essay​
A classic format for compositions is the five-paragraph essay. It is not the only format for writing an essay, of course, but it is a useful model for you to keep in mind, especially as you begin to develop your composition skills. The following material is adapted from a handout prepared by Harry Livermore for his high school English classes at Cook High School in Adel, Georgia. It is used here with his permission.

How to Write a 5-Paragraph Essay that will Amaze Everyone​
Did you know that you can effectively unleash your creative capacity and astonish everyone with your talent by creating just 5 paragraphs? Writing a 5-paragraph essay can be easier and faster than baking a 5-layer cake if you know the secret ingredient. Keep reading to get to the essence of 5-PE mastery.

Writing Research Papers

The first thing to understand is "What is a research paper?"

A research paper is a document that explores the knowledge that is available within a particular field of study and presents that knowledge in the effort to answer a particular research question.

A research paper is:

A document

This means that it is written out as a single item. It might be printed or stored electronically.

Exploration

By exploring we mean that it documents and writes about something...it is somewhat "investigative".

Collection of knowledge that is available within a particular field of study

While some research questions might involve more than one specific field, the point is that the paper focuses on knowledge that is ALREADY present within a field. If that field was Psychology, you would explore the knowledge of what has been discovered about that topic already...we call this "a review of the literature". This provides you with the background knowledge that you need to write about our current understanding about something.

This is different than conducting a study (experiment, survey, interviews) where you are actually gathering raw data on your topic. To conduct these sorts of studies you need to have specialized training in research methods and ethics (not because you can't do it, but to ensure that you do it in such a way that it produces accurate knowledge).

Meant to answer a particular research question

When you set out to write a research paper you need to first decide which question you want an answer. This is often the toughest part because you have to phrase the question in a way that will "justify" your work.

You can't really ask "yes or no" type questions

You have to ask questions using the terms that are common in the field you are studying (so often times you need to do some preliminary work to get to the question)

The question has to be important...there are a lot of questions out there that are not important or "nobody cares". This is particularly true in this day and age when there is so much information already put together out there on the web. If I can answer your question with a simple Google search, it is not worth writing a paper about it.

Formatting the Whole Paper

Similar to writing an essay, the format of a paper needs to lead the reader through your thinking process as you attempt to show what is known in a particular field in order to answer a particular question.

My favorite model for essay/paper writing is as follows:

You start out introducing the topic in general terms and then gradually work your way toward the thesis...this first part should show the reader why your question is important

The "thesis" is your actual research question.

You should then present your arguments/research/data that support/refute/answer your question

You should then bring the reader back to the question (the recapitulation of the thesis)

Then work your way out again towards general information and/or the practical application of your answers

Here we can use that same graphic!

Starting the Writing Process

Making  sense  out  of  your  observations  about  a  text  is  a difficult  task.  Even  once  you've   figured  out  what  it  is  that you want  to  say,  you  are  left  with  the  problem  of how  to say  it.   With  which  idea  should  you  begin?  Should  you  address the opinions  of other  thinkers?  As  to   that  stubborn contradiction  you've  uncovered  in  your  own  thinking:  what do  you  do with that?  

Writing  papers  in  college  requires  that  you  come  up  with sophisticated,  complex,  and even   creative  ways  of  structuring your  ideas.  Accordingly,  there  are  no  simple  formulae that  we   can  offer  you  that  will  work  for  every  paper, every  time. We  can,  however, give  you  some   things  to think  about  that  will  help  you  as  you  consider  how  to structure  your  paper.

Section 3

What is APA Format?

APA

APA stands for the American Psychological Association. In order to standardize the format of submissions for professional articles from psychologists, the APA developed a set of standards for writing. This set of standards has become one of the most widely used set of “rules” for writing professional publications in the world.

Keep in mind that the entire publication standard is geared toward professionals who want to publish their research in academic journals, so the standards are very exacting, and at times, may seem excessive. The point of the standard is to level the competitive playing ground for publication and standardize the expectations for communicating certain kinds of information.

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th Ed.)

The absolute best reference for these standards is the official 6th edition of the Publication Manual of the APA.

This manual may be purchased directly from the American Psychological Association.​
You can also find some other supplemental materials on this same page.

Use Google to look up the titles of other books related to the Publication Manual that you may find useful include:

Concise Rules of APA Style​
APA: The Easy Way​
APA Made Easy

Purdue University Online Writing Lab

Another very popular resource for information on APA style is the OWL website supported by Purdue University.

Visit the Purdue OWL

What is APA Format?

I guess I have still not answered this particular question! APA formatting rules and standards describe how to format your document for publication. These standards include standards related to structure and content, writing clearly and concisely, how to format title pages/statistics/graphs, etc., crediting sources (in-text citations and references), and information about the publishing process.

You may encounter many of your instructors insisting that your work be in APA format, but they might not always be very clear about what that means.

Unless you are trying to get your paper published, you probably only have to pay attention to a few of the standards. Preparing documents for advanced Psychology classes, presentations, or for publication necessitate that you actually purchase the manual and learn all the details.

For the purpose of this tutorial, we will focus on five distinct areas that are often the focus of your teacher’s demand that you write in APA style.

Doing Research

Title Pages and Formatting

In-Text Citations

References

General Writing Style and Clarity

The rest of the content of this chapter will focus on these areas.

Section 4

Title Pages and Formatting

What’s the big deal?

This is probably the most common complaint I hear from students! “Why does the formatting need to be so exact?” Well, in a way, your instructors are a lot more interested in what you have to say in your paper and how you say it (some of which is covered by APA style)...than the exact format of your title page. But, education does not only teach about the world of ideas. We also teach how to perform to specifics standards, and in some cases, how to exceed these standards.

One of the basic lessons from this sort of demanding exercise is: “Can you persist in learning how to do this and follow instructions to the smallest detail?” Trust me when I say that many employers want to know that you can “persist in learning” and “follow instructions”, and if you are destined to be a supervisor, you will appreciate these characteristics (and others) in your employees!

The Title Page

The Title Page is the first page in your document. Even though we are submitting documents electronically, your Title Page needs to be the first page in your entire document.

Title Pages inform your reader (instructor) as to who you are, which class you are submitting this for, and the name of the assignment. It also conforms to some specific standards related to APA, such as centering, no fancy typesets, and running headers.

Creating an APA Formatted Title Page

For all of your papers, your title page should include the following:

Running head (at the top of the page...formatted as in the video)

Your name

Title of your paper

The title of the assignment

The name of the college (Kennebec Valley Community College)

The course number and name name of the class (PSY 101: Introduction to Psychology)

Your professor's name

To complete some of the instructions on the video you are going to have to get to know your word processing application. However, nearly all applications (including MS Word, Pages, Word Perfect, etc.) have the capacity to do this formatting.

Resist the temptation to use templates that come with your word processor to create APA formatted documents. It is much better that you exercise writing with this style so you can understand when something does not look right!

Formatting

In addition to the Title Page, there are some document formatting points you need to pay attention to. This list reads more like the 10 Commandments by focusing what NOT to do, but it is useful none-the-less.

DO NOT use fancy font types or text styles anywhere.

DO NOT submit your title page as a separate document.

DO NOT put extra spaces between paragraphs. Your entire document should be double spaced with the first line of every paragraph indented 5 spaces.

DO NOT use a fancy format title page with graphics in it. Make it boring, focus on making your WRITING captivating rather than your Title Page.

DO NOT insert graphics, links, pictures, or any other elements that is not directly part of your paper.

DO NOT write in first person. This means you don’t use the word “I”, as in, “I think that these conclusions are misguided.”

DO NOT copy sections of text from your resources (to be discussed later)...even if you cite the source. The VAST MAJORITY of the paper should be in your own words.

DO NOT use shortened versions of words, slang, curse words, emoticons, or other symbolic language.

How about some more POSITIVE RULES?

YOU SHOULD write clearly and concisely. Make sure you follow a good paragraph style...see below...that allows you to clearly explain what you are saying.

YOU SHOULD only use language that you can use comfortably. While it is necessary to use specific terminology at times, do not try to “write smart” or impress your instructor by writing using words and concepts that you have not mastered.

Section 5

In-Text Citations

Giving Credit

When you are writing a paper it is very important that you give credit to the sources of the knowledge you are using. This goes beyond using quotes....you must give credit to the ideas you use as well.

There are two ways you do this when writing papers...In-Text Citations and References.

In-Text Citations

As you are writing and decide to use a piece of information from your research, you make reference to it in the actual context of your writing. When you make reference to a source, you include some basic information about the source that allows the reader to look up your source in your References (see the next section.)

For a typical article, you might include the last name of the author and the year of the publication. This is enough for the reader to find it in the list of sources you have in your References.

Let’s imagine that you are going to use the following article:

Junco, R., Merson, D., & Salter, D. W. (2010). The effect of gender, ethnicity, and income on college students' use of communication technologies. CyberPsychology, Behavior & Social Networking, 13(6), 619-627.

Now pay attention to this part...

The FIRST time I mention information from this article in my writing I will do it this way:

“According to Junco, Merson, and Salter (2010), income was found to be not related to students’ use of communication technologies.”

In this sentence I’m stating to my reader that I go this information from the article.

The SECOND (and from this point on) time I refer to this article, I can shorten it to:

“According to Junco, et. al. (2010), most students felt that communication technologies were an important part of learning.”

Another way that I could have written these is in this way:

“Income was found to be not related to students’ use of communication technologies (Junco, Merson, and Salter, 2010).”

and...

“Most students (Junco, et. al., 2010) felt that communication technologies were an important part of learning.”

How to do APA In-Text Citations

Section 6

References

Listing Your Sources

If you have done any papers prior to this time, you are probably familiar with the need to list all your sources on the last page or pages of your document. Different styles and standards call these pages by different names.

You may have used the term “Bibliography” or “Works Cited”...these are fine, but they are NOT APA standard. APA’s version of this part of your paper is simply called “References” and that word is centered right at the top of that first page!

Formatting References

With all the different kinds of sources that are out there, it is beyond the scope of this section to cover all of the different ways to cite references. So here are some tips and resources:

Make sure that for every source you have cited in the in-text citations, you have a matching source in your references.

Websites are cited in-text only, and you include the complete URL or you can simply put the main website address (www.apple.com)

Keep in mind that citing books, journal articles, newspapers, TV shows, the Bible, a lecture, a blog, or any other source...all have slightly different formats.

The Purdue OWL website is invaluable in this regard.

Purdue OWL website on citing References in APA format. ​
Look at the left side menu and all the options for References List.

Here is a video on APA References.

Chapter 18

Using Your Device

The iPad that you are holding in your hand (if indeed you are using an iPad to view this CourseBook) is a remarkable device! Over time, the evolution of technology has transformed our portable technologies (phones, music players, and cameras) into single, complex, and amazing portable computers. The iPad represents the pinnacle of this evolution.

Like all technological devices, from the pencil to computers, you will need to learn how to use this device in order to benefit from it. Learning new things involves two processes, as described aptly by the famous Swiss Psychologist, Jean Piaget:

Assimilation

Assimilation is the process by which we integrate new knowledge into our thought processes. We assimilate information by interacting with it often and by developing new processes and procedures for doing things. This is a very important part of learning how to use an iPad. While the iPad is designed to be “easy to use” it is still a computer. “Getting things done” on an iPad entails learning how the touch screen works, how to access apps to perform specific tasks, and how to use the tools built into every device (communication apps, internet access, camera, microphone, etc.

Learning the specific ways in which an iPad does these things is key to assimilating the use of the device into your professional practice.

Accommodation

Accommodation is the process by which we modify existing knowledge to incorporate the new knowledge we are assimilating! While that sounds like a lot of psychobabble, the bottom line is this: You likely have already used a computer, a smart phone, and maybe even a tablet...but if you have not used an Apple iPad you are going to have to relearn and modify some of the ways in which you get things done on this device.

This can be frustrating. If you are a committed Android device user, for example, and are skilled at using your device, learning how to use an iPad can seem bothersome. Understand that the goal is not to frustrate you, but to enable you to develop expertise across a number of different computer platforms. In work we are not always at liberty to use our device of choice, so having expertise on the process of learning new technology is transferrable to many situations.

So, why the iPad?

If I had a dollar for every time someone has asked me this question I would be a rich man! I come from Maine where I have heard intense debates about the merits of either owning a Ford or a Chevrolet. Both parties are usually passionate about their choice and can cite reasons why their choice is superior. The same applies to our personal devices, which are, in fact, very personal.

Setting aside my personal preference for Apple products (along side a wide variety of experience in other platforms) the selection of the iPad was based on pedagogy (or better yet, andragogy, the study of adult learning).

When teaching anyone to use technology, particularly in a classroom setting, certain adragogical conditions maximize the efficacy of the learning process:

The instructor has expertise in the technology.

The technology is stable over time and across applications and devices.

The instructor has developed lessons and materials to communicate this knowledge to the students.

Class activities are standardized in order to ensure that all students are getting the same instructions and are held to the same performance levels.

Interaction between students, students helping other students, is encouraged.

All of these factors are enhanced by the use of a single device (everyone is using the same device) and that the device is an Apple iPad (which has a tremendous record of stability, both hardware and software, and exhibits intense control over the user experience ensuring that all users encounter the same interface when using the same apps.)

It is hard to express how critical this is for effective and efficient learning of technology. This is the reason why Professors want all their students to use the same textbook, word processing classes select one word processor to learn on (most likely MS Word), and why we have standards in electrical outlet supplies and building codes. By learning technology based on the same standards, we learn the technology better.

Generalizing this knowledge to other platforms comes after. It can be said that the more we assimilate, the more readily we can accommodate.

Section 1

Writing Papers

​

Writing

Everything you know about academic writing, of course, applies in this context as well.

For all papers that you submit to this course the following applies.

All assignments submissions should be submitted digitally to your instructor and must meet the following criteria:

Title page with your name, the name of the assignment, the course name and number, your instructor’s name, and the date.

Thorough spell check, grammar check, and clear and comprehensible writing style.

All sources of information used in assignments must be checked for reliability and validity. Primary sources such as the DSM and peer-reviewed articles are preferred.

All sources are cited within the text of the assignment (in-text citations) and are listed on the last page of the document (References page) in accordance to the American Psychological Association’s Publication Manual (APA Format).

Apps for Writing

There are a wide variety of apps that you can use to compose documents on an iPad. The choices is really up to you and your budget.

The two most popular writing apps on the iPad are Microsoft Word and Apple Pages. Your iPad likely came with Apple Pages already installed. If you would rather use the more familiar Word app, then select that one.

Microsoft Word

Apple Pages

File Format

Remember that in order for your instructor to be able to read your great work, they need to be able to open and see your file. The best format for submitting documents to Blackboard is in PDF.

Each of the apps we have selected for this tutorial has the ability to convert your file to a PDF and submit it to Dropbox. See the tutorial on Blackboard and Dropbox for more details.

Remember your Computer

Keep in mind that you can still use a regular computer to compose and edit your document. Save the file and submit it directly to Blackboard.

You can also email documents from your iPad to yourself, open them on your computer, and submit them to Blackboard.

Section 2

Using AirDrop

Description

AirDrop is a wireless (WIFI) file sharing tool that is build into every Apple device. When two devices are on the same WIFI network, users can simply share files with one another.

This is a great tool when you have a group working on a presentation or a large and each team member wants to have a copy on their device.

The following instructions are focused on enabling AirDrop on both an iPad and a Mac and sending a file from the iPad to the Mac.

FIRST - Make sure that all the devices are on the same WIFI network! This is critical for how this technology works.

Configuring AirDrop on your iPad

To access these controls swipe with one finger from the bottom of your screen up...this will open the basic control panels for you iPad.

On the bottom left you can see the toggle for AirDrop. This gives you the option to have Everyone or only select other devices access to send files. One this is set, your iPad is “discoverable” by other devices.

Configuring AirDrop on your Mac

Since we are using a file transfer from an iPad to Mac in this example, we also need to make sure that the Mac is set to use AirDrop.

If you open any window in the Finder, one of the standard locations for files is AirDrop. You can see it listed along with other drives and folders in the finder window below (on the left). You can also see that this Mac is not yet on the same WIFI network as the iPad.

When we select “Turn On Wi-Fi” the Mac will begin to search for any devices in the area that have AirDrop open and are discoverable.

In this image you can now see that Mark Kavanaugh’s iPad is on the same network and is discoverable.

Sending a file from the iPad to the Mac

When you are sending a file from the iPad to the Mac through AirDrop, you are going to use the same Share icon that you use to send documents to email or to any other app.

When you are in the app itself (Pages, Word, iMovie, etc.) you look for the share icon.

When you have AirDrop on and there are discoverable devices around, that option will appear.

This screen is from my iPad as I attempt to share an image from Photos with my Mac.

You can see the gray MK circle that indicates that my laptop has AirDrop. I simply select image at the top (indicated by the blue arrow) and then press the gray MK circle to transfer the file!

If you have a lot of devices that appear in this window, let’s say, an entire classroom of students with iPads set to be discoverable in AirDrop, an instructor can distribute a handout, image, or just about anything to the entire class without leaving the comfort of their space in the front of the room!

Section 3

Recording & Editing Video

​

If a Pictures is worth 10,000 words...

...imagine what a video is!

iOS devices come with pretty amazing tools for taking pictures and recording video. The evidence of this is plain to see on the sheer number of YouTube videos that have populated the Internet.

Being able to record video also allows you to be able to demonstrate specific skills such as counseling, crisis intervention, public speaking, demonstrations, and teaching. iOS devices bring a suite of apps and built-in hardware to make this easy.

Camera

Depending on the specific model of device that you have, you have an impressive combination of hardware and software that allows you to capture images and video. Camera is a standard app that comes with your device. Selecting it will open up the Camera app and active the camera that faces the back of your device. (You have two physical cameras on your device, one is in the back and the others is on the front of the screen.)

Here is the start screen when you open the Camera.

Pressing the white button with engage the camera and either take the picture or start recording video.

Video detailing features of the Camera

Photos App

Photos is another built-in app on your device. Photos is where all your images and videos from the camera are stored. It also stores all of your images saved from the web.

You can use the Photos app to edit pictures with some basic editing tools. You can also crop the beginning and end points from a video. Editing beyond these basic features will require a different app.

Editing Photos

Visit a website that reviews some of the best apps available to edit photos on your device!

Editing Video

For many of the instances in which you will need to record video you can simply clip the unnecessary parts from the beginning and ending of the video and go with that.

However, there are times you might want to “splice” multiple videos into one larger video, cut out mistakes in the middle, or even add effects and titles.

For this kind of work you will need to employ a video editor. My favorite tool for this is Apple’s very own iMovie.

iMovie

Tips About Pictures and Videos

Pictures and videos can tell an amazing story and can really go a long way to explaining and demonstrating your ideas and skills. Here are some tips to keep in mind as you are preparing to use these tools:

Take your time and get a good picture or video. This means that you may have to take the picture or video more than once in order to get a good shot. Editors can help but if you don’t have good shots, you can’t make up for that.

This is what you should look like when you are creating a video of yourself.

Be sure that you look at your pictures and video with a critical eye. Can your audience see what you want them to see? If you are in the picture or video, can your viewer see you clearly? Are you framed in the middle of the shot (or to the side, depending on your style) so that the shot looks professional?

Make sure you are aware of your background. People and distracting objects BEHIND you are not seen by YOU when you are taking the picture or video, but they will be seen by your audience. Be sure your background is as professional as your presentation needs to be.

Audio (when it comes to video) is even more important than the image. It is vital that you speak clearly and loudly enough to be heard. Also avoid recording in noisy areas or where others (humans and animals) may interfere with the recording. Also avoid having appliances like fans, air conditioners, and laundry running. Your ears will tune these out, but the microphone on your device will not!

Be professional in all that you do. Your images and video are sometimes going to be the work you are judged on. You would not submit a paper without doing a spellcheck and a good look over on the product prior to submitting it and the same applies to images and photos. Take your time, redo pictures and recordings to get them right, and submit your best work.

This particular video uses some older versions of the ​
camera and iMovie apps...but otherwise is very ​
instructional.

This video features tips and tricks for making cinematic video on an iPhone 6, but it is applicable to any modern iOS device.

Section 4

Recording & Editing Audio

​

Audio

Another feature built into iOS devices is the microphone and the various apps that access the microphone.

Examples of this include, of course, the video recording features that also record audio, Siri (the voice activated personal assistant software), voice to text (the ability to have your device read text to you), and an app called Voice Memos that allows you to record an audio message (or a song at a concert) directly in to your device!

This is the icon of the Voice Memos app that comes with your device.

There are some other apps that also use the microphone that you might find interesting.

One GREAT example of this kind of app is Super Recorder. This app has been designed to let you take notes, record someone speaking, and take pictures and integrate them all into the same document!

Check out Super Recorder

Editing Audio

The truth is, with the right apps you have a professional recording studio in your hands when you hold an iPad. There are nearly limitless applications for not only recording voice, but to record entire bands!

For simple voice editing (though it is still a multitrack recorder!) one of the best apps out there is Hokusai Audio Editor.

Check out Hokusai Audio Editor

Advanced Audio Recording

I mentioned that you have a virtual music studio on your hands and that is so very true!

There are a number of apps that allow you to record music, overdub parts, do multi-tracks, and mix downs to studio quality sound!

First, of course, is the iconic Garageband!

Check out GarageBand

This app has single-handedly changed the way people record music and has brought professional music tools into the hands of more artists than any other innovation.

The growth of such a large number of independent musicians and song writers has sparked an entire industry of independent recording artists sharing and selling their music in iTunes and elsewhere having used these simple and amazingly inexpensive tools!

Tools for Professionals as well...

App developers did not want to leave out the professionals in the field either. Many professional recording tools such as Pro Tools and Apple’s own Logic audio work stations have dedicated iPad apps for remote control, audio input, and as simplified interfaces for quality recording on the road.

This is Logic Remote​
for Logic Pro X​
(You need to own Logic Pro X on your Mac to use this app!)

This is Pro Tools | Control​
for Avid Pro Tools​
(You need to own Pro Tools on your Mac to use this app!)

In addition to being a great controller for professional audio workstations that are on your computer, there are some stand-alone apps that give Garageband a run for its money!

Here is a great article on how to turn your iPad into a recording studio!

Music Instrument Apps

You can search the app store for lots of apps for creating music...apps that turn your iPad into an instrument.

Check these out (search the names in the App Store):

Pocket Guitar - Virtual Guitar in your Pocket

Drum Kit

iFretless Bass, Guitar, Sax, and Brass

Audio Hardware

The final installment on this topic has to do with hardware. For most purposes the microphone that is included in your device is more than adequate to capture sound. The ability to capture higher quality sound, sound from instruments such as guitars, basses, and keyboards necessitates you to invest in some additional hardware.

There are lots to choose from including microphones that connect directly to your iPad and interfaces that allow you to plug instruments (guitars, basses, etc.) into your iPad.

These can be quite expensive so you would only be approaching some of these products if you wanted to take on some serious recording.

Microphones

IK Multimedia iRig Mic

Apogee MiC

Rode i-XY / Rode i-XYL / Rode smarkLav+

Zoom iQ6 / Zoom iQ7

Blue Mikey

Sure MV88

Tascam iM2X

Movo PM10

Audio Interfaces

IK Multimedia iRig PRE

Apogee JAM / Apogee ONE / Apogee Quartet

Alesis iO Dock

Roland DUO-CAPTURE

Focusrit iTrack Solo

Tascam iXZ

Chapter 19

App Tutorials

Throughout this CourseBook you will encounter links to apps (iOS Applications) that are you expected to download and use in some manner. Apps exist for almost anything that you would wish to do on an iPad, hence the phrase “There’s an app for that!”

This section of the CourseBook will provide information and tutorials on how to use these apps. Most of the apps are fairly self-explanatory, but through the use of screen shots and basic instructions you will be guided on how to get started on all the apps. More advanced learning can be accomplished by searching the web or YouTube for additional help.

Section 1

SkyView Lite

Select the icon above to download the app to your iPad.​

Section 2

Adobe Spark Video

Select the icon above to download the app to your iPad.​